Origins of Technology

Stone tools have been used for millions of years and show how hominin behaviour and cognitive abilities have changed through time. Our ancestors probably used an array of simple tools made from wood or bone, but stones are the only artefacts that have preserved over a long period of time.

Early hominin innovation and technological advancement can be seen in changing stone tool technology. Over time, stone tools gradually became more sophisticated and generally decreased in size. 

The earliest known stone tools are dated to around 3.3 million years ago and are from East Africa. These simple tools were created by striking sharp stone flakes off cores. This is considered the earliest evidence for purposeful toolmaking by hominins.

At ~2.6 million years ago, hominins were using bipolar and freehand techniques to remove flakes. These tools were made from cobbles and pebbles which produced particularly sharp flakes. The flakes were probably used as cutting and scraping tools, and then discarded. 

The earliest stone tools from Kenya are associated with Kenyanthropus.

At ~2.6 million years ago, hominins such as Homo habilis, and possibly Paranthropus robustus, were using bipolar and freehand techniques to remove flakes from cores to make simple chopping and cutting tools.

No tools have been associated with Australopithecus africanus.  

This species was the first of our pre-human ancestor to be discovered, but was initially rejected from the human family tree because of its small brain size. However, later evidence showed that this species has many features intermediate between humans and apes.

Pictured: Replicas of the Taung Child and STW 252 from South Africa.

At ~1.76 million years ago there was a big leap in stone-tool making technology. Large pointed tools called handaxes and cleavers with a flat cutting edge. They were skilfully made and used as multipurpose tools to work wood, dig roots and butcher animals.    

By 600 000 - 500 000 years ago greater decision making and skill was required to make tools. Archaic Homo sapiens were using soft hammer techniques to make more refined stone tools. 

By 400 000 years ago Archaic Homo sapiens may have communicated using language. Scientists have argued that as tools became more difficult to make, more explanation would have been required to teach the methods and help others to master the skills. 

Pictured: Homo sapiens (Skhul 5) and Homo Heidelbergensis (Atapuerca 5)

While the genetic and fossil evidence suggests that humans became biologically modern some 300 000 years ago, the archaeological evidence suggests that humans were becoming behaviourally modern or cognitively complex around 100 000 years ago.

Pictured: Sibudu Cave, South Africa

These tools are made by first preparing a stone core with a specific shape and volume to efficiently remove a flake or blade of a desired shape. Some of these flakes (Levallois flakes) were then hafted onto wooden shafts and used as spears. 

Africa has the earliest evidence of compound weapons, such stone tool-tipped spears and bows-and-arrows. By 80 000 years ago humans were regularly hafting tools. 

There is evidence at 160 000 years ago in South Africa, that Homo sapiens were heating stone to high temperatures to improve the flaking properties of some stones to make better, sharper tools.

Around 80 000 years ago, fine-grained stone was used to make small (microlithic) crescent-shaped stone tools. One side was purposefully ‘blunted’ (backed) to haft onto an arrow or knife handle. The other side was a very sharp cutting edge. 

Stone tools were glued onto handles, using resin or plant gum - this is called hafting. Spears and knives were made this way. 

By 100 000 years ago Homo sapiens were regularly hafting tools. Making hafted tools requires skill, knowledge and complex cognitive abilities.

These tools are associated with complex hunting weapons, such as arrows, requiring superior hunting skills. There is also evidence of the use of snares and traps at this time, and of increased symbolic culture, such as engravings and shell beads. 

South Africa has some of the earliest evidence of human cultural expression. Discoveries of pieces of engraved ochre, marine shell beads and engraved ostrich eggshell suggest that symbolic expression and other innovative behaviours associated with modern humans appeared in Africa 100 000 years ago, possibly earlier. 

South Africa has many Middle Stone Age sites that have yielded some of the earliest evidence in the world for fully ‘modern’ Homo sapiens. The finds suggest important technological advances, subsistence and behavioural innovations, communal behaviour, symbolically motivated actions, and creative expression.

Later Stone Age period starts around 30 000 years ago. 

Later Stone Age archaeology is characterized by a wide variety of small, intricate stone artefacts, beautiful bone tools and sophisticated hunting technology, such as delicate poisoned arrows and fishing implements.

Later Stone Age groups had rich culture and complex social structures. 

This is shown through the art, clothing, decorative items and burial practices seen in the archaeology.