The Iran Hostage Crisis

In 1977, the U.S. and Iran enjoyed a friendly diplomatic relationship. Carter and the Iranian leader's official discussions centered on peace prospects for the Middle East as well as ways to combat the energy crisis that had hit the U.S. and other Western nations as a result of the Arab Oil Embargo.

At the time, Carter hoped to enlist the shah’s help in reconvening peace talks between Israel and Egypt and to secure Iran’s help in supporting nuclear non-proliferation talks with the Soviet Union. As president, Carter used his constitutional powers as outlined in Article II, Sections 2 and 3 to employ ambassadors and other public ministers to achieve these measures. (Image: NAID 177337)

To illustrate, when John F. Kennedy became president in 1961 with Iran on the verge of revolution against the shah's unpopular policies, Kennedy sought to stabilize the situation by promoting democracy through a development plan based on the principles of modernization.

Over the years, the shah established and maintained relationships with presidents preceding Carter. Iran was important because it provided oil to the industrial West and separated the Soviet Union from the Persian Gulf and the oil states during the Cold War. The United States had an enormous stake in keeping it stable and independent.

However, the one steadfast policy shared by multiple administrations centered on American energy. In the United States, between 1940-1980, there was a population increase of 71% and the Real Gross Domestic Product increased by 508%. To meet these demands, America became reliant on cheap fossil fuels and foreign oil.

It wasn't long before the U.S. imported 25% of OPEC's (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) oil. A sustained effort by the United States to counter Soviet influence in the Middle East resulted in the Arab Oil Embargo of 1973-1974 and brought about a 350% increase in the cost of oil. (Image: NAID 550088)

The stability of the country, though, was being threatened by a political and religious activist, the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, who opposed the shah’s efforts to modernize and Westernize Iran. Khomeini intended to establish a theocracy in Iran that would encapsulate the fundamental religious beliefs of the people.

Democracy is grounded in the guarantee of civil liberties such as those outlined in the Bill of Rights, and the right of citizens to vote in free elections as guaranteed by the 15th, 19th, and 26th Amendments. Theocracy is a form of government in which religious leaders provide ruling authority.  (Source: Carter Museum Collection, object number 85.10.1396)

Up until this crisis, few Americans seemed aware of the deep resentments that many Iranian people continued to harbor toward the United States, a country they considered a symbol of Western influence into their society. Part of the problem stemmed from the desire of the shah, in October 1979, to come to New York City for cancer treatment.

President Carter allowed the deposed shah to come to the United States and Khomeini’s government interpreted the move as another example of the West’s interference in Iran’s affairs. (Image: NAID 16921407)

At the height of the Islamic Revolution hundreds of Americans were evacuated from Iran. In one such exodus, the evacuees were airlifted from Iran to Hellenikon Air Base in Greece. Four days earlier, on February 14, 1979, armed Iranians stormed the embassy and took 102 Americans hostage.

After the Ayatollah's forces intervened and returned control of the embassy to the United States, the U.S. State Department chartered 13 commercial Boeing 747 airliners, which flew an additional 4,099 people out of the country. This was the first attempted takeover of the American embassy. The second takeover on November 4th would culminate in 444 days of captivity for 52 Americans.  (Image: NAID 6377351)

President Carter was faced with a grave crisis and the events that led to the capture of American Embassy Personnel had reached its apex. Mehdi Bazargan was appointed by Khomeini as prime minister and as such became head of the new provisional government in Iran.

The more moderate Iranian prime minister resigned in protest after Americans were taken hostage and Khomeini was in full control. The militants demanded that the shah be returned to Iran to face trial in exchange for the hostages despite the fact that the Carter administration had arranged for the shah to leave the United States for Panama. (Image: NAID 24493739)

President Carter used his constitutional powers to exert pressure on the Iranian government by imposing economic sanctions. On November 14, 1979 (ten days after the takeover of the embassy), Jimmy Carter resorted to the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (NAID: 18519539)

This act provided that the American president can regulate commerce upon declaring a national emergency due to an international threat. The move was intended to be severe yet incremental. It served as a warning that the United States could escalate to other options, including military force, if needed.

The hostage crisis had grave consequences in President Carter’s attempt to win reelection in 1980. Many voters perceived his inability to resolve the crisis as a sign of weakness. In addition, dealing with the crisis prevented him from campaigning effectively.

The country was plagued by many problems—double-digit inflation, rising unemployment, the crisis in Iran, and the Cold War with the Soviet Union. Americans cast their ballots in accordance with the terms laid out in Amendment XII of the U.S. Constitution and the result was a landslide victory for Ronald Reagan.  (Source: Carter Museum Collection, object number 88.15.38)

The consequences of the Iran Hostage Crisis were not limited to their geopolitical repercussions. There was a human toll as well. While American hostages suffered psychological and physical scars, some U.S. military personnel made the ultimate sacrifice. Iran also suffered greatly from the crisis.

Besides losing all international support in the Iran-Iraq war, Iran failed to get any of the concessions it had demanded of the United States. Today, some $1.973 billion of Iran's assets remain frozen in the United States, and the U.S. has not imported any oil from Iran since 1992. Indeed, U.S.-Iranian relations have degraded steadily since the hostage crisis. (Image: NAID 6436867)

President Carter utilized Executive Authority, Congressional legislation, and diplomacy in accordance with the tenets of our founding documents to resolve the Iran Hostage Crisis. Americans, in turn, exercised their constitutional rights to express their sentiments and, ultimately, issue a referendum on the administration's performance through the democratic process.

While the Iran Hostage Crisis is now behind us, other challenges have emerged in its place. American policy and public sentiment have changed over time but the instruments of our democracy have remained steadfast.