Book of the Dead Papyrus Nesshutefnut (Papyrus Ryerson) (Ptolemaic Period, ca 250 BC)Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum
What is the Book of the Dead?
The term “Book of the Dead” is a modern designation born in the nineteenth century and applied to religious texts from ancient Egypt.
The Book of the Dead was not a “book” in the modern sense that it was bound together at the spine and it was not a single narrative composition.
Book of the Dead Papyrus of Nesshutefnut (Papyrus Ryerson) with spells 154–162 and 191–192 (Ptolemaic Period, ca. 250 BC) by UnknownInstitute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum
What we have come to associate most closely with the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead is a papyrus manuscript inscribed with many short texts called “spells.”
Book of the Dead of Neferini (hieratic) (Ptolemaic period, 4th–1st century BCE) by Artist unknownNeues Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
Each spell had its own theme and structure, but the spells were often grouped together in sequences and inscribed on long scrolls produced by attaching sheets of papyrus together.
Some manuscripts had only a single spell, while others contained up to 165.
Mummy of Hornedjitef (inner coffin) (-240/-240)British Museum
Each manuscript was laboriously made by hand — a process that produced a unique, one-of-a-kind document. Although we closely associate the Book of the Dead with papyri, its spells could be inscribed on linen bandages, amulets, coffins, sarcophagi, statues, stelae, and the walls of the tomb.
To the ancient Egyptians, these spells were called the “spells of going forth by day,” a reference to the ability of the soul to leave the tomb at dawn.
Book of the Dead: Introduction (2017) by Foy ScalfInstitute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum
With these words, the ancient Egyptians sought identity, communion, and fellowship with Osiris, the god of the dead. They believed that language and writing were imbued with magical power and that reciting and recording such declarations would make the statements come true.
Scene from the Great Harris Papyrus: Ramesses III before the gods of Memphis (-1150/-1150)British Museum
Like all of us, the people of ancient Egypt wondered what would happen to them after they died. To alleviate this anxiety about our human mortality, a life-affirming religion developed in ancient Egypt that emphasized the possibility of immortality – an everlasting life in the hereafter among the gods.
Page from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer (-1285/-1285)British Museum
Each Egyptian needed to undergo the proper rituals of embalming and burial to ensure their continued existence in the next world.
Magical spells of ritual power accompanied these rites. So powerful were these words that Egyptians wanted to take the spells with them to the grave.
Book of the Dead Papyrus of Irtyuru (Papyrus Milbank) with Spell 125 (Ptolemaic Period, 332-30 BC) by UnknownInstitute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum
How to read Books of the Dead
The beginning and end of spells in the Book of the Dead were written in red in order to highlight the transitions between spells.
Because of their red color, they are today referred to as "rubrics," after the Latin word rubrica meaning "red (ochre)." These rubrics can help you identify where spells begin and end.
Book of the Dead Papyrus of Irtyuru (Papyrus Milbank) with Spell 18–30 and 64 (Ptolemaic Period, 332-30 BC) by UnknownInstitute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum
Rubrics at the beginning of spells often included the hieroglyphs for "Spell of" or "Recitation by." However, don't be fooled! Not every red section of text is the beginning of a spell. Sometimes individual words or phrases were written in red for other reasons, such as when they designate dangerous forces, threats to the dead, or explanatory glosses.
Stela of Harsiese Inscribed with BD 15 (Late Period, Dynasty 26, ca. 664-525 BC) by UnknownInstitute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum
What was the Book of the Dead for?
With spells of diverse origins, the Book of the Dead fulfilled a network of spiritual needs including protecting the dead from dangerous beings and acting as a guidebook to afterlife realms.
However, the common goal of the texts was the rejuvenation of the deceased, restoration of their vital and intellectual abilities, and ensuring that they would join the divine retinue of the gods.
Book of the Dead Papyrus Nesshutefnut (Papyrus Ryerson) with Spells 52–99 (Ptolemaic Period, ca. 250 BC) by UnknownInstitute for the Study of Ancient Cultures Museum
In addition to proclaiming their identification with Osiris, the dead used spells to be transformed into various entities, including falcons, herons, a swallow, a snake, and a lotus.
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