Unveil Lifting the Urban Veil: Fevers, Typhoid & Sanitation in Bengaluru, exhibit showcasing research by the St John's National Academy of Health Sciences in collaboration with University of Oxford’s Typhoidland Project. Our galleries, uncover the faith of Fever Goddesses, predating the discovery of typhoid. We then study Typhoid in Colonial Bangalore, and how it shaped the city's development. Finally, we explore the grave conditions of Sanitation Workers, who protect communities from disease.
Bheesties or water carriers from Observations of the Sanitary State of the Army in India by Florence NightingaleOriginal Source: Observations on the evidence contained in the stational reports submitted to her by the Royal Commission on the Sanitary State of the Army in India
Sanitation And Water Borne Diseases
The study of diseases in Colonial India found an association between ineffective sanitation and the spread of infectious diseases like typhoid, jaundice, among others. For decades now, effective sanitation has been at the forefront of government policies and priorities.
Indian Drainage System from Observations of the Sanitary State of the Army in India. by Florence NightingaleOriginal Source: Observations on the evidence contained in the stational reports submitted to her by the Royal Commission on the Sanitary State of the Army in India
The Sanitation Story In India
Since the 18th century, administrators have proposed drainage systems and construction of public latrines to avoid the public's exposure to human waste. However, manual handling of human faeces by workers called scavengers, was central to sanitation systems.
Mehtar Sweeper Caste from Observations of the Sanitary State of the Army in India. by Florence NightingaleOriginal Source: Observations on the evidence contained in the stational reports submitted to her by the Royal Commission on the Sanitary State of the Army in India
During colonial rule, the imperial British government sought to employ the traditional cased based manual scavengers as municipal cleaners to avoid causing ripples within the Indian community and the caste mindset. The additional advantage was saving on paying formal wages.
Manual Sanitation Workers cleaning a cesspit by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Who Are These Manual Scavengers?
Historically, the communities employed as manual scavengers belong to the lowest of low castes, class, and form the most vulnerable sections of Indian society. The stigma of defecation and waste, caused by notions of purity and pollution deprive them of agency.
Manual Scavengers in rural areas by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Caste And Sanitation
The caste system is based on an authoritative religious book on Hindu law, the Manusmriti, circa 100 CE. The text divided communities into four main castes. Innumerable caste sections emerged over centuries based on occupation and bloodlines with a distinct hierarchy.
Gandhi Family (1946-05) by Margaret Bourke-WhiteLIFE Photo Collection
Gandhi And The Caste System
As India struggled for independence, M.K Gandhi attempted to end caste discrimination. However, to avoid infighting, he simultaneously embraced the caste system as 'god-given' duties, and briefly likened manual scavengers to mothers of society, keeping their children clean.
March For Home Rule (1930-01-01) by Hulton ArchiveGetty Images
This ambiguity solidified the position of sanitary workers in society, and caste based discrimination remained woven into the new government of independent India. Intermarriage, intermingling or even sharing food vessels and water sources were considered 'polluting' and taboo.
India Politics (1946-05) by Margaret Bourke-WhiteLIFE Photo Collection
Ambedkar And Caste Action
Activists like Dr. B.R Ambedkar emerged as human rights activists for 'Dalits', (meaning 'broken identity'), a term used to refer to lower caste people. Over the following decades, committees would form, protests held, walkouts staged, all to force the government into action.
Manual Scavengers in rural areas by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Manual Scavenging and Tools involved
The practice of 'manual scavenging' involves using bare hands and minimal tools, such as scrapers, to clean and empty toilets and tanks. The faeces is removed and transported using buckets, baskets, and carts. These tasks expose workers to extreme health risks.
Manual Scavengers in rural areas by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Systems Fail as the Past Continues
Unfortunately, sanitation systems have not reached remote areas of the country, thus forcing a reliance on manual scavengers using their self-made tools, makeshift protective garb for poor wages. Leftover food and old cloth have been used as common forms of payment.
Manual Scavengers in rural areas by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Occupations may no longer be rigidly assigned on caste lines, yet members of the lowest sections have been consistently forced into various unsanitary and demeaning work. Due to the disorganised nature and stigma of the work, regulation and development has been difficult.
Manual Sanitation Workers cleaning a cesspit by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Limits of Labels, Laws and Technology ...
The Hindi term Safai Karamchari’ means cleaning staff, but is used to respectfully refer to manual scavengers. The practice has been denounced and banned by successive laws, with attempts to introduce sanitation technology, yet it continues to exist and endanger lives.
Municipal Sanitation Workers cleaning a manhole by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Sanitation Workers of India Today
Sanitation workers bridge the gap between sanitary requirements and the existing sanitation infrastructure. They include all those involved with sanitation work, cleaning, maintaining, operating or simply being the sanitation system for many communities in India.
Contract Sanitation Worker manually cleaning a manhole by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
As a labour-driven field, the majority of workers belong to the unorganised sector. While most organised workers are gainfully employed and unionised, contract and informal workers are poorly paid, often at the mercy of their employers and subject to exploitation.
Manual Scavengers in rural areas by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Double Discrimination and the Intersection of Women
Women reportedly comprise over 95% of all manual scavengers in India, receiving the least wage and the most abuse. Though most sanitation workers experience physical and verbal abuse, and discrimination, women suffer two-fold, unable to escape their family obligations.
Manual Scavengers in rural areas by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Understanding the Issues
Since the 1960s, studies have revealed the underlying health crisis. Workers suffer from toxic exposure, recurring infections, malnutrition and physical disorders due to intense manual labour. Workers cleaning septic tanks and manholes suffer fatal asphyxiation at alarming rates.
Asia-India Delhi Ii Government Buildings Parliament Viceregal LodgeLIFE Photo Collection
Government Steps Forward
Public pressure moved the Indian government to initiate many schemes to benefit lower caste communities, from installing watchdog agencies to campaigning for the liberation of manual scavengers. However, these efforts were underfunded, poorly enforced and largely inaccessible.
Manual Sanitation Workers cleaning a cesspit by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Employment of Manual Scavengers and Dry Latrines Outlawed
In 1993, the Indian judiciary passed an act to abolish manual scavenging by outlawing the use of dry latrines. It was accompanied with installations of corporations such as the National Safai Karamchari Financial & Development Corporation to see to the details of the primary act.
Manual Sanitation Workers cleaning a cesspit by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Challenges in the Sanitation Infrastructure
However, due to a reported lack of funds and authority, and prejudice within the corporation, the prohibition was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, water scarcity and lack of other sanitary systems meant that dry latrines continue to be used instead of pour-flush latrines in the country.
Municipal sanitation worker woman cleans in a garbade dump by PxHereMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
Grassroot Initiatives
Non-profit groups have tried to redress issues using grassroot movements and socio-legal advocacy. In 2002, under the Jan Sahas NGO coalition, the Rashtriya Garima Abhiyan campaigned to educate and support manual scavengers, resulted in the reskilling of almost 15,000 women.
Protest against manual scavenging by ADHIYAMAANMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
By Workers, For Workers
Similarly, the Safai Karamchari Andolan, a group established by activist and community member, Bezwada Wilson, ran campaigns to support manual scavengers. They petitioned the courts to register all scavengers nationwide and initiate more effective legislation.
Contract Sanitation Worker manually cleaning a manhole by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
New Law To End Manual Scavenging
Consequently, the Prohibition of Employment of Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act was passed in 2013. It specifically outlawed employment of sanitation workers, but not the workers themselves. PEMSR detailed rehabilitation programmes and sanitation infrastructure.
Contract Sanitation Worker manually cleaning a manhole by C S Sharada PrasadMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
The Road to Rehabilitation
Experts have observed a slow decline in manual scavenging practices and deaths. Yet, with investment in sanitation and advocacy efforts, these communities still have a long road ahead to financial stability, social equity and work of their choosing.
Types of Sanitation Workers by Saachi NarayananMajor General S.L. Bhatia History of Medicine Museum
In Conversation with Health Centre Sanitation Workers 2021
Moderator: By chance, if your child asks to join your work, what would you say?
Workers: We would say no. They should study and live happily. We didn't get an education, we sweep and clean waste, but we want our children to study well, get a job they like and live better lives.