The first two installments of this series cover the early women’s movement (1848-1877), including the push for universal suffrage after the Civil War, and the next several decades of organizing (1878-1916) as suffragists reassessed tactics. In this installment, explore the final few years of suffrage work that ultimately led to the 19th Amendment.
Winning the Vote
Support for women’s suffrage grew with state-level victories, persistent lobbying, and militant protest tactics. These strategies, combined with the nation’s entry into World War I in 1917, turned the tide in favor of a national amendment for women’s suffrage.
Influenced by the war and changing public opinions, President Woodrow Wilson announced his support of the amendment in 1918. Congress finally passed it in 1919. After a 70-year fight—and a 15-month ratification battle—women finally secured the right to vote.
Learn more in the upcoming video, as Exhibition Developer Elena Popchock walks through the third section of the exhibit. (Please note that the audio and video will play automatically.)
The Tide Turns
By 1916, eleven states and one territory had granted women full suffrage. President Wilson voiced some support, but he continued to believe that it was a state issue. In January 1917, militant suffragists started picketing the White House, pressuring Wilson to support the amendment. Four months later, the United States entered World War I.
As the nation fought for democracy abroad, suffragists seized the moment to shine a critical light on American democracy—where much of the country could not vote. As other suffragists pursued a lobbying campaign, the sustained pressure on Congress and the president would soon spark action.
Picketing the White House
The National Woman’s Party launched a picket of the White House in 1917—the first the nation had ever seen. Quietly holding banners, the “Silent Sentinels” placed pressure on President Wilson. They continued for an entire year, undeterred by harsh weather and sneers from angry passers-by.
Suffragists light “Watchfires of Freedom” (1918) by Harris & EwingOriginal Source: Library of Congress
Watchfires of Freedom
To protest the Senate’s inaction, women set up cauldrons outside the White House gates and other Washington, D.C., locations in 1919. Day and night, they maintained the flames by burning Wilson’s speeches—and throwing in a paper effigy of the president.
Portrait of Nell Mercer (ca. 1910-1920)Original Source: Library of Congress
Meet Nell Mercer
Mercer, a businesswoman from Virginia, was one of two African-American women who participated in the 1919 watchfire demonstrations. As a member of the Norfolk branch of the National Woman’s Party, she joined the final watchfire protest and was arrested in February 1919. She spent five days in jail.
“Without Extinction is Liberty” picket pin (ca. 1921)Original Source: Alice Paul Institute
Picket pin, ca. 1921
This tiny pin proclaims, “Without Extinction is Liberty,” a slogan borrowed from a Walt Whitman poem. For $3, any picketer could purchase this commemorative pin. This one belonged to Alice Paul, leader of the National Woman’s Party. She had three in her possession when she passed away in 1977.
Facing Arrest
Criticized as unpatriotic, the picketers faced more resistance when the United States entered the war in Europe. President Wilson eventually ordered their arrest for obstructing traffic.
Police arrest suffragists on Constitution Avenue (October, 1918) by Harris & EwingOriginal Source: Library of Congress
This photograph shows police confronting National Woman’s Party picketers on Constitution Avenue in Washington, D.C. As the women near the front of the line reach the policemen, the authorities seize their banners and arrest them.
Portrait of Ernestine Hara Kettler (ca. 1917) by Harris & EwingOriginal Source: Library of Congress
Meet Ernestine Hara Kettler
In 1917, twenty-one-year-old Ernestine Hara Kettler joined the White House picketers before being arrested and serving a harrowing prison sentence. Born to a Romanian Jewish family, Kettler immigrated to the United States in 1907 and eventually joined New York City’s labor movement.
Article detailing arrest of picketers (June 22, 1917) by Evening StarOriginal Source: Library of Congress
This article details the arrest of Lucy Burns and Katherine Morey, who picketed the White House in June 1917. They carried a banner emphasizing the need to fight for democracy—using words from a speech delivered by President Wilson.
Enduring Prison Sentences
The “Silent Sentinels” found themselves in a workhouse prison, experiencing horrendous conditions, sustaining beatings, and eating worm-infested food. Some orchestrated hunger strikes that resulted in force-feedings.
Portrait of Dora Lewis (ca. 1910-1919) by Harris & EwingOriginal Source: Library of Congress
Meet Dora Lewis
A suffragist from Philadelphia, Dora Lewis served as an officer in the National Woman’s Party. She participated in protests in Washington, D.C., ultimately facing arrest and serving several prison sentences.
Letter written from prison (November 14, 1917) by Dora LewisOriginal Source: The Historical Society of Pennsylvania
In 1917, Dora Lewis wrote this letter to her mother while in prison.
She ended the letter with a postscript, reporting, “We are all so happy – Congress won’t be able to stand this situation.”
Dora Lewis released from jail (August, 1918)Original Source: Library of Congress
In 1918, Dora Lewis was released from jail after five days of hunger striking.
Telegram from jailed suffragists (November 28, 1917) by National Woman's PartyOriginal Source: Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University
Telegram capturing progress made by jailed suffragists, 1917
“America is bound to sympathize and grant us victory,” predicted the National Woman’s Party in this telegram. As the public decried the mistreatment of suffrage prisoners, opinions changed. Within a year, Wilson announced his support for the amendment—urging Congress to support it, too.
Speakers on the “Prison Special” tour (February 28-March 1, 1919)Original Source: Library of Congress
The “Prison Special” Speaking Tour
After Congress rejected the suffrage amendment in 1918, militant suffragists launched the Prison Special, a cross-country speaking engagement. Dressed in prison clothing, they rode a train and spoke on behalf of candidates who supported policy change in Washington, D.C.
Ticket to Prison Special speaking tour (January 4, 1918)Original Source: Library of Congress
Tour ticket, 1919
This ticket granted access to the first stop on the Prison Special speaking tour in Charleston, South Carolina. One of the tour's speakers, Lucy Burns, spent more time in prison than any other American suffragist.
Women and World War I
When the nation entered World War I in April 1917, some suffragists turned their attention to the war effort, demonstrating their loyalty and commitment to democracy. Militant suffragists, however, publicly criticized the president for embracing democracy abroad while leaving half of the population without the vote.
The war also heightened racial tensions. Black women pursued the ballot with new urgency to advocate for anti-lynching legislation. They also denounced the president for promoting democratic ideals abroad, while ignoring racial violence at home.
Portrait of Anna Julia Cooper (ca. 1901-1903) by C.M. BellOriginal Source: Library of Congress
“The cause of freedom is not the cause of a race or a sect, a party or a class,—it is the cause of human kind, the very birthright of humanity. . . . It is not the intelligent woman vs. the ignorant woman; nor the white woman vs. the black, the brown, and the red,—it is not even the cause of woman vs. man. Nay, ‘tis woman’s strongest vindication for speaking that the world needs to hear her voice.” (1892)
Note: This is a modern recording.
Article concerning suffrage for black women (June 1, 1920) by Willie May KingOriginal Source: Cornell University Library
“The old arguments such as women should not vote because they cannot fight is ‘tommy-rot.’ The perpetuity of our government rests not entirely on physical force. This was clearly demonstrated during the recent war when women were called upon to help win the war.” (1920)
Note: This is a modern recording.
Explore and listen to more of the debates—for and against women's suffrage—here!
Food conservation sticker (1917)National Constitution Center
Food conservation sticker, 1917
This small sticker used a common slogan— “Do Your Bit”—to encourage housewives to fight food waste. When it came to matters of the home, wartime propaganda was often geared towards women, asking them to do their patriotic duty.
“Garden Primer” (1917) by New York State Woman Suffrage PartyNational Constitution Center
“Garden Primer,” 1917
Some suffrage organizations adapted their work to align with the war effort. Distributed by a New York suffrage group, this guide details how to plant a vegetable garden to limit the consumption of meat and wheat.
“As A War Measure” advertisement (1917) by The Woman CitizenNational Constitution Center
“As a War Measure” advertisement, 1917
To promote women’s suffrage, this advertisement in The Woman Citizen magazine embraces the numerous wartime roles that women occupied. It reminds the reader how much the country has asked of its women. What do they seek in return? Only one thing: the vote.
National Woman's Party lobbyists organize files about senators (ca. 1920) by National Woman's PartyOriginal Source: Library of Congress
Keeping Tabs
Some suffragists saw the war as an opportunity to place more pressure on Congress. National Woman’s Party lobbyists, seen here, created detailed files on each senator who opposed the amendment. They recorded the specific routines and home states of each senator.
Facing public pressure, Wilson eventually changed course on the women’s suffrage amendment. He pointed to women’s wartime loyalty to encourage congressional passage—declaring it a vital war measure.
Status of the Amendment
A national amendment for women’s suffrage—introduced in Congress in 1878—languished for decades. However, the momentum created by state victories, militant protests, and continued lobbying in the 1910s led many to believe the amendment could finally be won.
In the upcoming video, watch the progress made at the state level in the several decades leading up to the 19th Amendment.
In January 1918, the House passed the women’s suffrage amendment, but it fell two votes short in the Senate. Suffragists maintained a near-constant presence on Capitol Hill—targeting the senators who had voted against it. As the 1918 midterm elections neared, suffrage advocates carried these efforts to their home states. The midterms proved to be a turning point, as Republicans picked up the majority.
“Last Call” for boarding the suffrage bandwagon headed to the Capitol (1918) by Clifford Kennedy BerrymanOriginal Source: Library of Congress
Political cartoonist Clifford Berryman drew this cartoon in January 1918, anticipating congressional approval of the amendment in the near future.
Here, some legislators board a bandwagon adorned with “Votes for Women” signage, while others stay back, looking baffled.
The horse-drawn wagon is headed to the Capitol, where the issue would soon be decided.
Passage by Congress
In May 1919, the House passed the amendment in a landslide, and the Senate approved it two weeks later. However, the amendment would not take effect until it was ratified by three-fourths of the states. The ensuing battle to finally enshrine women's suffrage in the Constitution lasted for an additional 15 months.
To learn more about the drafting and passage of the 19th Amendment—from early proposals to the final text—check out the Interactive Constitution’s Drafting Table.
Ratification by the States
Suffragists faced one final hurdle to secure their amendment: ratification by the states. In March 1920, progress stalled—one state short of the 36 needed. Delaware rejected it in June, leading suffragists to pin their hopes on Tennessee. Preliminary votes showed the state legislature split dead even.
Letter to Harry T. Burn from his mother (August, 1920) by Febb Ensminger BurnOriginal Source: Knox County Public Library
Letter to Harry T. Burn, 1920
Tennessee legislator Harry T. Burn, only 24 years old, received this note from his mother before the Tennessee vote.
She asked Burn “to be a good boy and help Mrs. Thomas Catt with her ‘Rats’”—referring to suffrage leader Carrie Chapman Catt and the “ratification” of the 19th Amendment.
It was signed “With lots of love, Mama.”
The Final Vote
Harry T. Burn planned to vote “no”—until he received the note from his mother. When the roll call vote reached him, he surprised everyone by voting in favor of the amendment. The shocked crowd erupted into cheers as women’s suffrage became a part of the U.S. Constitution—by a single vote.
Alice Paul unfurls the ratification banner (August 18, 1920) by Harris & EwingOriginal Source: Library of Congress
Ratification Banner
The National Woman’s Party (NWP) sewed a star on this banner as each state ratified the 19th Amendment. When Tennessee ratified in August 1920, suffrage leader Alice Paul unfurled the completed banner from the NWP headquarters. A few months later, millions of women across the country voted under the 19th Amendment.
“Under the 19th Amendment, I cast my first vote” ribbon (1920)National Constitution Center
Commemorative ribbon, 1920
This ribbon celebrates the moment when a woman cast her ballot in the 1920 presidential election—for the first time. With support from female voters, the Republican candidate Warren G. Harding won in a landslide, capturing 60% of the popular vote.
Continuing the Fight
In November 1920, millions of women across the country voted under the 19th Amendment. But for many women, the fight was not over. Some women used the vote to focus on economic issues, while others challenged gender discrimination. As leaders debated whether to unify around another cause, they left behind women of color, who continued their suffrage activism alone.
Because the 19th Amendment only banned voter discrimination based on sex, other forms of discrimination continued. Laws requiring literacy tests and poll taxes continued to spread nationwide, disproportionately impacting people of color and the poor. For decades, civil rights advocates fought to remove these barriers.
Poll tax receipt (1922)Original Source: National Constitution Center
Poll tax receipt, 1922
In order to vote, many people paid the required poll tax, then obtained a receipt like the one seen here. These taxes, as well as literacy tests, prevented millions of women from voting under the 19th Amendment. In 1964, the 24th Amendment banned the use of poll taxes in federal elections.
Portrait of Fannie Lou Hamer (August 22, 1964) by Warren K. LefflerOriginal Source: Library of Congress
Meet Fannie Lou Hamer
As a leader in the 1960s voting rights movement and a community organizer in Mississippi, Hamer helped organize the 1964 Freedom Summer to register African-American voters in the South. Thanks to decades of organizing among civil rights advocates like Hamer, Congress eventually passed the 1965 Voting Rights Act to prevent racial discrimination in voting.
Signing of the Voting Rights Act (August 6, 1965) by Yoichi OkamotoOriginal Source: LBJ Library
Signing of the Voting Rights Act
In August 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the the historic legislation into law. After signing, the president turned to shake hands with Martin Luther King, Jr., who attended the ceremony with other civil rights advocates.
Voting Rights Act (August 8, 1965) by 89th CongressOriginal Source: National Archives and Records Administration
Voting Rights Act, 1965
The Voting Rights Act enabled the national government to prevent racially discriminatory election practices in the states. Congress renewed the legislation several times, but in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court struck down part of the law: a formula identifying the states that needed permission before implementing any changes to their election laws or procedures.
Embracing the Vote
After 1920, women who went to the polls—who were not denied their right to vote—used their influence to focus on issues concerning work and the family. Some turned to various social reforms, addressing infant health and child labor. Others focused on economic issues, such as low wages and union membership.
The two mainstream suffrage organizations reassessed their purpose—largely ignoring the millions of women who still could not vote. The National American Woman Suffrage Association restructured as the League of Women Voters to educate women about elections and issues. The National Woman’s Party pursued the Equal Rights Amendment. Both groups targeted gender discrimination in state legislation.
The Equal Rights Amendment
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), drafted by Alice Paul, was first proposed in Congress in 1923. The proposed amendment finally gained widespread support in the 1970s. It was passed by Congress in 1972—after being introduced in every Congress for 49 years.
By 1979, the ERA had been ratified by 35 of the required 38 states, although five states attempted to rescind their ratifications. Congress extended the ratification deadline by an additional three years, but no new states ratified.
ERA Button (ca. 1970s)Original Source: National Constitution Center
ERA button, ca. 1970s-80s
This button was part of a final push to get the Equal Rights Amendment ratified in the late 1970s and early 1980s. In recent years, supporters have secured the ratification of three more states, but the future of the ERA is uncertain.
How Women Won the Vote
Generations of diverse women and men used a range of constitutional arguments to push for women’s voting rights. Amid triumphs and failures at the state and national levels, the movement continued for 70 years. Women’s suffrage was finally added to the Constitution in 1920 with the 19th Amendment. However, for the many women who still couldn’t vote after 1920, this victory was part of a much longer journey to secure equal access to the ballot box.
This online exhibit was developed by the National Constitution Center—the third installment in a three-part series based on its exhibit, “The 19th Amendment: How Women Won the Vote.“ To learn more, including how to visit, go to our website.
Explore the first installment of the online exhibit series here.
Explore the second installment of the online exhibit series here.
Want to learn more about the state campaigns? Visit our interactive map to explore each state's suffrage story.
To hear more audio from the debates surrounding women's suffrage, check out our online interactive experience.
Find out how the 19th Amendment was drafted and explore a timeline of key events through the Interactive Constitution's Drafting Table.
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