Gold beads from Mapungubwe

While there were local headmen in southern Africa amongst early farmer groups, large-scale chieftanships only appeared after 1000 AD. They occurred first in the Limpopo Valley where large urban centres developed - some with as many as 1500 inhabitants. Ultimately, this led to the rise of Mapungubwe in the 1220s. Mapungubwe was southern Africa's first royal residence, encircled by a town with perhaps as many as 5000 inhabitants. It is likely that the sudden growth of power was spurred by the new trade links and control of trade with the East African coast.

Significantly, the royal palace shifted from the valley floor to the hilltop, which was regarded as where communication with the ancestors or rain-making could take place. This step placed the king in a position of religious leadership; he now had control over spiritual forces through his special relationship with the ancestors and with god. This new level of spiritual authority probably gave the king ultimate control over all spiritual matters within his territory, including initiation ceremonies.