How to Read Character: A New Illustrated Hand-Book of Phrenology and Physiognomy

Phrenology localized specific intellectual and moral traits in different areas of the skull. Published in Samuel R. Wells's popular manual from 1869, How to Read Character, these portraits demonstrate how to compare and rank people according to levels of evolutionary superiority and inferiority. As a rule, size was a measure of power. For instance, a prominent forehead was understood to indicate high intelligence. This hierarchy reinforced racist and sexist prejudices and justified the continued oppression of disadvantaged groups, especially Black people, American Indians, and women.