The Lotus Sutra (Manuscript written by monk Yuanhao)

Each volume in this edition features an opening frontispiece and a closing colophon with an illustration. The colophons, which are identical across all seven volumes, record that He Yunzhong何允中 and his wife from Jiading嘉定 commissioned and funded this gold-ink work in 1330. Key contributors include Zhu Bao朱珤, who painted the frontispieces, Mingli明理, a Dharma Master of the Lotus School, who proofread and annotated, and monk Yuanhao元浩, who transcribed the text.
Zhu Bao, the frontispiece painter, was a disciple of Wang Zhenpeng王振鵬 (active circa. 1275–1330), a renowned jiehua界畫 master favored by Yuan Emperor Renzong仁宗 (r. 1311–1320). Absent from art histories, Zhu is known solely for these seven frontispieces. An anecdote by Qing scholar Wang Shu王澍 (1668–1743) claims Zhu surpassed his master and once saved himself during late Yuan unrest by displaying his paintings on a tower. Invaders, mistaking the images for a supernatural rainbow piercing the moon, fled in terror. This incident inspired writer Yang Tieya楊鐵崖 (1296–1370) to name the structure the “Rainbow and Moon Tower”. While legendary, this tale suggests Zhu was still alive in the late Yuan period, making it likely these frontispieces were early works.
Little is known about Mingli, the proofreader and annotator. The calligrapher, monk Yuanhao, studied under eminent monk Zhongfeng Mingben中峰明本 (1263–1323), learned calligraphy from Zhao Mengfu趙孟頫 (1254–1322) and was abbot of Yongshou永壽 Chan Monastery in Jiading, founded in 1318.
Yuanhao’s calligraphy features 11 half-leaves per sheet, 5 lines per half-leaf, and 18 characters per line. His style suggests the influence of Zhao Mengfu’s late period, with elegant but slightly flattened characters and dynamic running script brushwork.
Zhu Bao’s frontispieces, each spanning 6 half-leaves, feature Buddha Shakyamuni preaching on Vulture Peak to the right, complemented by various scenes from each volume on the left. This broader layout allows for more intricate jiehua界畫 techniques in architectural details. For instance, ornate platforms occupy four half-leaves in the preaching scenes on the right, while Volume Two showcases a luxurious mansion in “Parable of the Poor Son”. Volume Three depicts the seven-jeweled stupa constructed by Katyayana, a shravakas disciple (voice-hearer), and the left side of Volume Five has scenes of stupas and monks’ quarters being built.
Zhu’s innovative interpretations of the Lotus Sutra are evident throughout. Volumes Five and Six uniquely depict the “two Buddhas seated side by side” inside the seven-jeweled stupa, a feature not found in earlier Song and Yuan editions. This scene, described from Chapter 11 “The Emergence of the Jeweled Stupa” to Chapter 22 “Entrustment”, portrays Buddha Shakyamuni ascent into the sky and his being invited by Buddha Prabhutaratna to sit beside him. This represents the “Realm of Emptiness Assembly”, with the two Buddhas seated together within the stupa.
In addition, in Volume Two’s “Parable of the Blazing House”, Zhu includes a magnificent cart drawn by an elephant [Fig. 1], alongside carts drawn by a sheep, deer, and ox. The elephant-drawn cart represents the “Great White Ox Cart” mentioned in the sutra, aligning with the “four carts” interpretation debated by Chinese Buddhist scholars. In contrast with the more common “three carts” interpretation, this painting visually affirms the rare “four carts” view, suggesting that Mingli, a Dharma Master of the Lotus School, may have influenced this interpretation.
Each volume concludes with an illustration depicting various deities: Mahashri, Sarasvatī, the Eastern Heavenly King, the Southern Heavenly King, the Western Heavenly King, the Northern Heavenly King, and Skanda. Since typical editions only feature Skanda, this selection of additional deities as guardians of the sutra is unusual. The reason for choosing the five additional deities is unclear. However, the Northern Heavenly King (Vaishravana) and the Eastern Heavenly King (Dhṛtarāṣṭra) are mentioned in Chapter 26 “Dharani”, in which they vow to protect those who uphold and spread the Lotus Sutra.
The work demonstrates mastery in jiehua technique, figure depiction, drapery, and landscape elements. The seated Buddha on the colophon [Fig. 2] reflects Tibetan Buddhist artistic influence.