Questions of Identity

The external appearance of Jews throughout the world evinces the constant tension between segregation and integration that has always characterized Jewish existence in the Diaspora. While Jewish law does not dictate an entire dress code, and Jews' attire along the centuries was similar to – indeed, sometimes indistinguishable from – that of the local population, some distinctive marks can be discerned in their clothing, such as the tzitzit (tassels attached to the corners of one's garment as prescribed in the Bible) or the use of Hebrew script. From the eighth century on in many Islamic countries, and later in Christian Europe until the modern era, Jews had to be recognized by their external appearance, and governmental restrictive decrees were issued in order to maintain this distinction. 

“You shall make tassels on the four corners of the garment with which you cover yourself” (Deut. 22:12)The only positive biblical precept concerning dress is the commandment to wear fringes on the corners of one’s garment as a reminder of God’s laws: “And you shall look at [the tassel] and recall all the commandments of the Lord” (Num. 15: 39). At first tassels were attached to men’s outer garment; later, two distinct ritual garments evolved: the tallit, a shawl wrapped around the shoulders during prayers and important ceremonial events, and the tzitzit or tallit katan (“small tallit”), an undershirt worn all day. The fringes on the corners are made of four threads folded in two and knotted in numerical combinations representing the names of God. A variety of prayer shawls have been produced throughout the Jewish world.

The Israel Museum’s collection of Jewish dress and jewelry – one of the richest and most extensive in the world – was assembled over decades of field research conducted among the various communities. Head coverings for men are regarded as the sign of a God-fearing Jew. However, the mention of this practice in the Shulhan Arukh – the 16th-century code of Jewish law accepted by all Jewish communities – did not render it compulsory. Only in the 19th century did head coverings become a binding custom and men started to wear skullcaps.In the past, Jews in Christian and Muslim lands were required to wear hats identifying them as Jews. Sometimes their hats also indicated their status: Rabbis and community leaders were allowed to wear magnificent head coverings.In Israeli society, head coverings identify observant Jews, and the choice of head covering indicates affiliation with a particular socioreligious group. A case in point is the crocheted skullcap, which has become synonymous with the National Religious community.

There is no biblical precept commanding women to cover their hair, but according to Jewish law this is a basic requirement of modesty for married women. The Sages sought to restrain the temptations that a woman’s hair can arouse, and allowed a husband to divorce his wife unconditionally if she exposed her hair (Mishnah Ketubbot 7:6). It became a religious obligation in all Jewish communities for married women to cover their hair. Over time, the style of the head covering has taken many forms: hats, scarves, and wigs are variously employed. Some women cover every bit of hair; others allow the edges to show.

 

In the past, a woman’s head covering attested to her community affiliation and her place of residence. Today it distinguishes between observant and nonobservant women, and within religious circles it indicates group affiliation. 

The dispersal of Jews around the world spawned an ongoing dialogue with their surroundings that influenced their dress. On the one hand, Jews sought to distinguish themselves through their attire, in keeping with the biblical injunction “Nor shall you follow their laws” (Lev. 18:3), which Maimonides interpreted as referring to clothing. On the other hand, Jews often adopted their neighbors’ style of dress. Beginning in the Middle Ages, most of the Muslim and Christian regimes under which Jews lived differentiated them by dress through laws designed to stress their inferiority and set them apart from the surrounding population. In the 19th century, in contrast, laws enacted in eastern Europe forbade the Jews to look different from others, thus forcing them to dress like their neighbors. With the advent of emancipation and modernization in Europe, two conflicting trends emerged. More and more Jews sought to integrate into the society around them, while others, for whom non-Jewish dress represented the danger of assimilation, remained fiercely conservative, maintaining their traditional distinctive apparel. Today, in the age of globalization, the laws of fashion govern most wardrobes. Only religious Jews are distinguished by their outward appearance, whether due to their head coverings or to an entire mode of dress, which reflects their particular religious affiliation.