Maiolica and the
Material World of the Italian Renaissance
This exhibition explores the place of maiolica in the visual and material world of the Italian Renaissance. It presents a series of stories that take objects from the Gardiner Museum’s holdings as a starting point to reflect on maiolica’s connections to objects in other media and its place in the social life of the period. Displays highlight the tradition of story-telling on Renaissance ceramics; the popularity of certain myths; the manipulation of the medium in the creation of luxuries; and maiolica’s symbolic function in the context of marriage rituals.
Telling
Stories
The technique of maiolica, or tin-glazed earthenware, involves the addition of ashes of tin to a lead glaze to create an opaque white background for decoration. Elaborate decorative designs and figures turned practical dishware into items of beautiful, functional art. The technique used to produce maiolica was first developed by Islamic artisans in the 9th century in present-day Iraq. Maiolica flourished in Italy from the 1400s to the 1600s, eventually spreading throughout Europe as the trade in luxury goods expanded. As the form evolved, artisans began using the medium to tell different types of stories. Works decorated with narratives are known as "istoriato", and represent one of the most distinctive developments of Italian maiolica. "Istoriato" wares feature stories ranging from contemporary political events to ancient myths and biblical narratives.
Maiolica dish by Giulio da Urbino (1534/1534)British Museum
Dish with the Sack of Rome
Urbino, Giulio da Urbino, c. 1534; lustred in Gubbio
Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica), lustre
The British Museum, London, United Kingdom
One of two known pieces signed by Giulio da Urbino, this exquisite example of istoriato documents the Sack of Rome of 1527, showing the city under attack by the troops of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. This event would have been fresh in the minds of citizens of the day. The moral and divine punishment depicted is echoed by the inscription on the back: “D'amorosi pe[n]sieri gli animi in gombro” (I encumber men’s souls with thoughts of love).
Dish with scenes from the Abduction of Europa (1537) by Master of the Bergantini BowlGardiner Museum
Dish with scenes from the Abduction of Europa
Faenza, Master of the Bergantini Bowl, 1537
Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)
Gardiner Museum, Gift of George and Helen Gardiner
This dish depicting scenes from the Greek myth of the Rape of Europa was made in Faenza, one of the earliest maiolica centres to embrace the istoriato style. It presents Zeus in the form of a white bull abducting the Phoenician princess Europa, and carrying her across the sea to the island of Crete where she later gave birth to King Minos. Dolphins, cherubs, and leaves rendered in light blue on a dark cobalt ground frame the scene.
Fluted dish with Judith holding the head of Holofernes (1545-1560) by Castel Durante, ItalyGardiner Museum
Fluted dish with Judith holding the head of Holofernes
Castel Durante, Italy c. 1545-1560
Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)
Gardiner Museum, Gift of George and Helen Gardiner
This scalloped-edge dish on a low foot richly painted in blue, ochre, green, and yellow tells the biblical story of Judith. The beautiful Jewish widow decapitated the Assyrian general Holofernes, whose troops were laying siege to her home of Bethulia. Through this act, she saved her town from King Nebuchadnezzar. Judith is shown sabre in hand accompanied by her maid who holds Holofernes’ head in a bag. The headless Holofernes can be seen on the bed behind them.
Plate with scenes from the story of Leda and the swan (c.1530) by Francesco Xanto Avelli, Italy, UrbinoGardiner Museum
Eroticism in the myth of Leda and the Swan
The Greek myth of Leda and the Swan is a common theme on "istoriato" maiolica. It tells the story of the Spartan Queen Leda having sexual
intercourse with the god Zeus, metamorphosed into a swan. Subsequently, Leda
produced two sets of twins: Castor and Polydeuces, and Clytemnestra and Helen
of Troy. Ovid popularized the myth with his "Metamorphoses",
written in the 1st century BCE, but his writings were forbidden
throughout the Medieval period because of their erotic implications. During
the Renaissance, Leda and the Swan
was revived as individuals revoked religious asceticism and advocated for
humanism. Therefore, artistic renderings became more sensual and freed from the
condemnation and guilt of amorous joy. Common depictions involve intimacy,
metamorphoses, trickery, and bestiality. The focus and erotic explicitness vary
considerably depending on the medium employed.
Plate with scenes from the story of Leda and the swan
Francesco Xanto Avelli, Italy, Urbino, c.1530
Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)
Gardiner Museum, Gift of George and Helen Gardiner
An inscription on the back of the plate describes the scene as: “Jupiter [Zeus] impregnated Leda’s womb.” Xanto toned down the erotic atmosphere of the scene by making Leda turn her back from the viewer, perhaps an implication of shyness and female modesty. The iconography also includes Zeus’ transformation into a swan on the left. The rich colours of maiolica contribute to the sensual atmosphere.
Naked woman (Leda) and swan (Zeus) embrace on a river bank; two figures jump into the water at middle ground; a town and bridge in the background. (early 16th century) by Agostino Veneziano (Agostino dei Musi)|Domenico Campagnola|Anonymous, Italian, 16th centuryThe Metropolitan Museum of Art
Landscape with Leda and Swan
Agostino Veneziano or Domenico Campagnola, first half of the 16th century
Engraving
Metropolitan Museum of Art
Compared to the plate, the engraving is more explicitly erotic. Leda’s body is more exposed and her posture reveals more cleavage underneath the swan. Without the indication of “Zeus’ metamorphosis” or deceit, the theme of bestiality is enhanced. The rigidity in Leda’s facial expression and the swan’s position also opens up the debate as to whether it is a consensual act of love or a violent rape, as do all other renderings of the myth.
Leda and the Swan (around 1532) by Antonio Allegri da CorreggioGemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
Leda and the Swan
Antonio da Correggio, around 1532
Oil on canvas
Gemäldegalerie, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin
This picture belongs to a series of four paintings by Correggio, each depicting one of Zeus’ amorous exploits based on Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Correggio elaborates the narrative into three scenes across the canvas. On the right, Jupiter approaches and seduces Leda as a swan. The pair engages in sexual intercourse in the centre, after which the swan flies away. Correggio’s soft touch and fine brushstrokes enhance the sensuousness of the scene.
Luxuries for the Table
A range of objects made of diverse materials, including maiolica, transformed Renaissance banquets into luxurious events. Although ideals of magnificence and splendour were closely tied to nobility during the Renaissance, individuals did not always turn to expensive and luxurious materials to showcase their status. While some items were luxurious because of the intrinsic value of the materials employed––such as silver and gold–– others, like maiolica, which uses the modest medium of clay, acquired value through different strategies. These could include erudite subject matter, the simulation of more precious materials through lustre, and ornament. The following examples demonstrate how everyday items like dishes and salt stands became pieces of art through strategies of added value, and how personal objects and property achieved significance beyond their utilitarian functions.
Dish with scene from the story of Tydeus and Polynices (1532) by Franco Xanto Avelli, Italy, UrbinoGardiner Museum
Dish with scene from the story of Tydeus and Polynices
Franco Xanto Avelli, Italy, Urbino, 1532
Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)
Gift of George and Helen Gardiner
Maiolica dishes decorated with stories, known as istoriato, became popular in the early 1500s. Themes derived from history or mythology elevated the status of the object. This work bears the inscription “See Pyramus and Thisbe together with the shadow” on its reverse, referring to the two soldiers fighting by the guest room in King Adrustus’ palace. The presence of inscriptions on the reverse of pieces indicate that maiolica dishes were used in an interactive manner in a social context, whereby guests were invited to test their knowledge by identifying the scene depicted.
Pair Salt Stands (1580-1600) by Urbino, ItalyGardiner Museum
Pair of salt stands
Urbino, 1580-1600
Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)
Gift of George and Helen Gardiner
Salt stands, along with other spice containers, were associated with prestige since only wealthier members of society could afford to season their food. These objects were often decorated with motifs that could communicate the patron’s taste. Grotesque ornament featuring plants, humans, and animal creatures in metamorphosis had ancient origins. The style was revived during the Renaissance by the school of Raphael in Rome and became one of the most popular decorative styles on maiolica in the second half of the sixteenth century.
Footed Dish Footed Dish (1500-1530) by Deruta, ItalyGardiner Museum
Footed dish
Deruta, 1500-1530
Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica)
Gift of George and Helen Gardiner
This footed bowl may have been used to serve dessert foods on a banquet table. If features lustre decoration, created by adding metallic oxides to the piece to create a shiny, iridescent effect that simulates the appearance of precious metals. The interior of the dish features a dedication to a women, “Isabella Pulit,” the adjective “pulit” suggesting the recipient’s modesty and purity. Isabella possibly received this object on the occasion of her marriage or betrothal.
Basin with fede motif (1500-1530) by Deruta, ItalyGardiner Museum
Faith, Love and Marriage
In the Italian
Renaissance, marriage rituals were closely tied to social status, material
culture, and display. Elite weddings presented opportunities to publicly
exhibit a family’s wealth through the exchange of luxurious gifts. Symbols of
love and fidelity, such as the "fede" motif, and objects in various media,
ranging from marriage chests to maiolica, crystallized the legitimacy and value
of the union. Often offered as gifts to a bride, these objects reinforced her
role as wife and mother, while holding commemorative functions within the
domestic space.
Deruta, Italy, c. 1500-1530
Tin-glazed earthenware (maiolica), metallic lustre
Gift of George and Helen Gardiner
This basin has a recessed central boss with the fede (faith) symbol composed of two clasped hands, surrounded by a heart, rosettes, and a crown. A wedding ring is visible on one finger. The handclasp was a morally-binding gesture performed by a bride and groom when signing their marriage contract, a moment called the impalmamento. Originally paired with a ewer, the ornate basin was likely gifted to a bride and may have been used for hand-washing during the wedding banquet.
Portrait of a Woman with a Man at a Casement (ca. 1440) by Fra Filippo LippiThe Metropolitan Museum of Art
Portrait of a woman with a man at a casement
Fra Filippo Lippi, Florence, ca. 1440
Tempera on wood
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Marquand Collection, Gift of Henry G. Marquand, 1889
This portrait is believed to represent Lorenzo di Ranieri Scolari and Angiola di Bernardo Sapiti, who married in 1436. The portrait prominently features the types of lavish garments gifted to new brides. Angiola wears a velvet brocade dress with luminous woven gold loops (alluciolato), an elaborate headdress (sella), and jewelry. “LEALTA,” meaning loyalty or faith, is embroidered on her sleeve. Marriage portraits were displayed as a reminder of the wife's virtue and honour.
The Story of Esther The Story of Esther (1422/1489) by Marco del Buono Giamberti|Apollonio di Giovanni di TomasoThe Metropolitan Museum of Art
Cassone panel with the story of Esther
Marco del Buono Giamberti and Apollonio di Giovanni di Tomaso, Florence, 1422/1489
Tempera and gold on wood
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918
This panel with the biblical story of Esther once decorated a cassone: a large, luxurious wooden chest used to transport the bride’s dowry to her husband’s home during the wedding procession. At home, the cassone’s decoration would have reminded a wife of marital fidelity. According to the story, Esther competed with other virgins for King Ahasuerus, undergoing purification rituals in a harem. The panel shows the culminating moment of their marriage where the King slips a ring onto Esther’s finger.
This exhibition was curated by students enrolled in the undergraduate seminar "Italian Renaissance Art, Fashion and Material Culture" taught by Professor Giancarla Periti at the University of Toronto (Fall 2020) and organized under the supervision of Dr. Karine Tsoumis, Senior Curator, Gardiner Museum.
Curators:
Emma Kim: "Telling Stories"
Yizhou Liu: "Eroticism in the myth of Leda and the Swan"
Rena Seeger: "Luxuries for the Table "
Elena Foulidis: "Faith, Love, and Marriage"
Additional Gardiner Museum Staff
Christina MacDonald, Collections Manager
