Silent Witnesses: From Neolithic to the Seljuks

One of the most important features of the NeolithicPeriod, also named as the New Stone Age, was man cultivating plants and starting agriculture. The people who lived in Anatolia were first hunter-gatherers, after cultivation of land they started to be dependant on soil. In time simple, big and small village settlements started to emerge. Besides cultivation of plants certain animals were domesticated which helped men in his daily life. In the light of researches conducted until present day we know that in the early phases of the Neolithic, although people were settled they have not yet discovered the pottery making techniques (forming and baking). They met their needs by carving vessels out of wood and stone. In the course of time farming and stockbreeding developed; crops like wheat, barley and lentil were also included in the agriculture. In the centuries to come monochrome pottery that was shaped by hand was made with thick walls and simple forms.Towards the end of the Neolithic Period as dry farming activity increased, pottery production developed. The produced ceramics were now thinner, finely-baked vessels with brown, grey and beige colors. There were also redburnished wares over cream slip. Animal shaped and human-headed vessels were first observed during this period,too. Along with the change in lifestyle changes arouse in the belief system as well. Instead of painting hunting scenes, reproductive scenes became more common. Mother-goddess faith got to be widespread and the fertility of females was in the foreground now.

Right after the Neolithic Period, the Chalcolithic, in

other words the Copper-Stone Age was experienced in

Anatolia. Such a name was given because besides stone

utensils, copper was used as well in making certain utensils.

In a way this was the transition period from the Stone Age

to the metal ages.

Just like in the Neolithic, many new things were

experienced in this period. The village life underwent a new

transition period and established the foundation of the City-

State-Empire socio-economical system which was to come

up later. Shifting to wet agriculture brought about the need

for a better organized society. Organized manpower meant

surplus; the storing and keeping of this material caused a

more complex social structure. Thus new professions and

branches were needed. By the increasing population and the

developing society a ruling class emerged. Meanwhile the

religious aspects were united with the leadership capacity.

Besides the prestigious edifices to meet the needs of this

newly established ruling class, monumental religious

architecture and public buildings were also built. In parallel

with the advancement of agriculture cities also grew larger

and became more prosperous. A society comprised of

familial relations was now taken over by a political

organization which developed systematically in the regional

base.

With the Chalcolithic Period Anatolia became a more

crowded land where organized societies started to live.

Hence it was divided into regions depending on the

differences in culture: The East, the Southeast Anatolia and

the Çukurova Plain were more under the Mesopotamian

cultural sphere; whereas the Western and Central Anatolia,

though in some parts showed distinctive local features, were

under the influence of the Aegean and the Balkanic cultures.

Bronze is a metal alloy consisting primarily of copper

and usually tin and hence the period received its name. It

was divided into three periods as Early, Middle and Late

(Bronze Ages). In the first phase of the Bronze Age the

settlements were in the form of fortified, organized, liberal

city-states within which temples and governmental buildings

were also erected. The discovery of bronze was added on

top of the previous discoveries or inventions i.e. farming,

stockbreeding, textile and pottery production. This enabled

the production of more powerful weapons and finer

ornaments. Trading capacity increased and a broad tradingweb

was established from Mesopotamia to the Aegean and

the Balkans.

The Middle Bronze Age began at the beginning of the

2nd millennium BC. The most distinctive feature of the

period was the close and organized contacts established with

the Mesopotamian civilizations resulting with the

introduction of writing to Anatolia. During this period

together with the “Trading Colonies” writing was used in

everyday life from contracts to trading and from

matrimonial documents to adoption papers. The Assyrian

traders exported tin and fabric to Anatolia and imported

silver, gold and processed copper in return. By the beginning

of the 2nd millennium BC a central, political power was

formed in Anatolia, the Hittite Kingdom. Aleppo in

northern Syria was conquered; Babylonia at the southern

plains of Mesopotamia was looted (1595 BC) and the

country of Arzawa in western Anatolia was captured.

After the vast territory it gained the Hittite Kingdom

reached the level of Empire during the Late Bronze Age

(1450-1190 BC). Towards the end of the 13th century a

sudden collapse took place within the Empire. The capital

Hattusa was demolished after a severe fire. It is asserted that

the Kaskas who migrated from the Black Sea Mountains

were responsible of this catastrophe. We do not have too

much information about this last period when migration

activities to Anatolia started from the Caucasus and western

Anatolia and turbulence was suffered because of drought

and famine.

After the political collapse of the Hittite Empire

towards 1190 BC, many principalities emerged in Anatolia.

This was a new, multi-layered political situation lacking a

central authority. During this period Anatolia was exposed

to migrations from all directions. Kaskas, the ruthless

enemies of the Hittites, took control of all Central Anatolia

north of River Halys. Northwestern Anatolia hosted many

communities who migrated from the Balkans. These people

have first settled in the Thrace, Propontis and the

Dardanelles region. Yet they moved on to the central parts

of Anatolia. The Muski people arriving via the Caucasus

settled at the west part of East Anatolia and the Aramians (a

sect of Semitic origin) moved in to the Southeastern

Anatolia. Use of iron became widespread. By the end of the

9th century BC all weapons and many of the necessary

instruments were made of iron.

During the 1st millennium BC new central powers

started to show their presence with great armies and wars.

The Urartians in East Anatolia; Phrygians, Lydians and the

Greek city-states in the Central and Western Anatolia; the

Hittites, Luwis, Aramians and other local communities in

Southeastern Anatolia each formed regional kingdoms. This

was the period when big wars, great massacres and forced

migration activities took place. It was also the period when

many developments and changes were encountered

especially in metallurgy and architecture. New societies,

languages and inscriptions now diversified and enriched the

ethnic and social structure of Anatolia. From the 6th century

onwards both the increasing raids of the nomadic Scythians

and Cimmerians and the military campaigns of the Persian

people i.e. the Persians and the Medes prepared the end of

the Iron Age Kingdoms of Anatolia.

Between the 9th and 7th centuries BC, the Urartian

Kingdom dominated mainly in Eastern Anatolia, in the vast

land from the Transcaucasus in the north, including the

lakes Cildir and Sevan, to the Anti-Taurus Mountains in the

south; and from the Lake Urmia in the east to the Euphrates

River in the west and inland Iran in the northwest. The

capital of the Kingdom was Tuspa (today’s Van). The state

was governed by a central and theocratic regime. The king

was the ultimate authority. He was also the head-priest and

the representative of God on earth. The state was governed

by the many bureaucrats within the structure. The

administration of the provinces was obtained by the

governors appointed from the central government.

The Urartians made vital investments in public work

both at the capital and the other provinces. Amongst the

public work accomplished we may count the aqueducts and

the irrigation canals to water the dry land. They also

established road systems between the cities in the vast and

rough territory in order to bring order and provide security.

From the Urartian civilization many architectural edifices

have survived to the present day like the many fortresses,

cities, aqueducts, dams, canals, highways and monumental

rock-cut tombs. Besides the aforementioned main units, the

capital Tuspa also contained open-air altars and multiroomed,

monumental rock-cut tombs built for the afterlife

of the king.

Due to the presence of rich metal deposits in the

Urartian territory, metalwork was an advanced art. The

metal objects were mainly made of bronze as well as gold,

silver and iron. Helmets, shields, quivers, belts, pectorals,

pendants, chariot accessories and harnesses were all made of

bronze most of the time and they were usually decorated

with embossing and incised figures.

Within the frame of Migrations in the Aegean, the

Dorian invasion from northern Greece to the south has

ended the Achaean-Mycenaean civilization. For a certain

period the Dorians settled in the Peloponnesus, Crete,

southwestern shores of Anatolia and the adjacent islands.

Later as the Ionians settled in the central part of Western

Anatolia (Asia Minor) c. 10th century BC thus the region

was called Ionia.

During both colonization periods many cities were

established on the western coast of Anatolia. Herodotus mentions in his book the 12 Ionian cities.

To name a few we may count Miletus, Ephesus, Teos and

Phokaia. Beginning from the 8th century onwards some of

these city-states increased their power in the region. These

were liberal city-states and they were governed by

monarchy. The cities comprised of a central area (acropolis)

where the governmental units and religious buildings were

erected within the city walls and the surrounding settlement

area for the citizens. In certain examples the settlement area

was also surrounded by city walls. Though the governmental

regime was monarchy at the beginning, in time it gave way

to oligarchy, and from 7th century onwards the city-states

were governed by archons; selected noblemen from

aristocratic families.

From the 6th century onwards the Ionian City-States

had to face long-term struggles with the Persians. The 200

years Persian struggle and invasion in Anatolia was ended

by Alexander the Great’s expedition to the East. During

Alexander’s Asian Expedition (336-323 BC), which he

conducted by an army comprised of Macedonian and Greek

soldiers, the Greek culture infused greatly with the countries

in the east and likewise the eastern culture had impacts on

the Greek culture.

At the beginning Rome was just the name of a city

built in central Italy in the 8th century BC. Via its successful

expansion policy it first became a Republic, and then an

Empire. Rome’s first relation with Anatolia started when it

gained the territory of the Pergamene Kingdom in the 2nd

century BC. In 129 BC Rome formed a state named “Asia”

at the same lands which used to belong to the Pergamene

Kingdom. After the battles which took place in the 1st

century BC between the Romans and the king of Pontus

Mithridates VI, Pontus, Bithynia, Cilicia, Galatia, Lycia and

Pamphylia became provinces. Especially in the 2nd century

AD Anatolia lived its Golden Age under the Roman Rule,

too.

In the proceeding centuries as its territory has

expanded vastly the Empire started to have problems in

ruling its land. Its economy has also weakened significantly.

By the Diocletian Reform in the 3rd century AD the land of

the Empire was divided into many provinces. In the 4th

century AD the old city of Byzantium was developed and

reconstructed by the emperor Constantine the Great. Hence

the city was named after him, as Constantinople, and it

became the second capital of the Empire. When Rome fell

after the northern attacks of the Goths and the Germanic

tribes in the 5th century AD, Constantinople started to rule

the Empire alone and for almost a millennium.

The Byzantine Empire ruled for about eleven hundred

years from the 4th century until the mid-15th century AD.

Its most expanded boundaries were during the 6th century.

It comprised of all the land around the Mediterranean plus

Thrace, the Balkans, Crimea and some parts of Russia. The

Byzantine emperors thought of themselves as the successors

of the Roman emperors and always used the title “ruler of

Romans.” Yet modern day historians accept the Byzantines

as a separate historical asset and name this empire as “the

Byzantine Empire” in regard to its capital, Byzantium

(Byzantion).

Due to its strategic position the Roman emperor

Constantine I had chosen this city as a second capital in the

east, after Rome. The city provided a passage to trading in

the Black Sea; it was also the spot where two continents

met; having been surrounded by water it could easily be

defended against attacks and also keeping the advantageous

situation of the Golden Horn in mind this mediocre city of

the Empire was flourished. With glorious festivities the city

was blessed on May 11, 330 and the Christian belief was

liberated in the city which now bore the name

Constantinople. This date is accepted as the beginning of the

Byzantine Empire. Its end was determined by the Ottomans

led by Mehmed the Conqueror when he conquered the city

on May 29, 1453.

The Byzantine civilization was an important power and

a world-state during the Late Antiquity and the Middle

Ages. It was an Empire on the east side of the

Mediterranean, governed by the state and juristic systems

inherited from the Roman Empire. Although its roots

nourished from the Greek and Roman cultures, it surely was

affected by the beliefs, ideas and artwork of the previous

and contemporary cultures of Anatolia, Persia, the Balkans,

Europe, Black Sea, the Aegean and the Mediterranean. Even

after the conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul), the

Byzantine culture continued to influence the Ottomans, the

Europeans and the Russians.

The Seljuks started to be politically and culturally

effective in Anatolia since the beginning of 11th century.

During the Seljukid Period, various new techniques were

applied in metalwork and the motifs on the objects

produced reflected traces of different cultures. Especially the

workshops in Konya and the region of the Artuqids were the

main centers of metal art. Among the Seljukid metal objects

many of them were functional like handled mirrors, incense

burners, bowls, perfume bottles, washbowls and trays.

During this period tile work also developed immensely.

Yet the same development cannot be observed in ceramic

arts. The colors used in ceramic production were mostly

yellow, brown and tones of green. The composition of

Seljuk and Byzantine ceramics show parallels. Amongst the

most frequently used figures in the Seljukid ceramics we see

birds, hunters, geometric and floral patterns.

Besides metal and ceramic the Seljuks were highly

advanced in the arts of tile work, plaster work and

miniature as well. The most frequently used material in

architecture was stone. Hence stone masonry was quite

progressed, too. Other than these, woodcarving and tapestry

were the two advanced arts to reflect the Seljukid taste.

The first depictions of humans ever known in Anatolia

were found in the Karain Cave. A human head incised at the

end of an animal rib bone is from the Upper Palaeolithic

Period. During the proceeding period, the Protoneolithic,

human depictions are only observed on the walls of Beldibi

Cave, an under-rock shelter. Since the Neolithic Period

human depictions in Anatolia increased significantly in

number. In the recently excavated sites like Göbekli Tepe

and Nevali Çori, besides the two or three dimensional

examples found on stones from the Aceramic Period of the

Neolithic, human shaped clay figurines were also produced

at Çayönü and Cafer Höyük. During the proceeding period,

the Early Neolithic, these objects gained a special feature

depicting mostly women. The use of women in figurines

mainly relied on the mother goddess belief in Anatolia. This

belief was reflected on the figurines by forming parallels

with the fertility of women and the abundance in nature.

These naturalistic female figurines all have exaggerated

breasts and thighs in order to emphasize fertility; thus

abundance and prosperity.

After the Early Neolithic Period the human depictions

continued to be naturalistic in style and aesthetic in form yet

now only females were depicted in three dimensional forms.

In other words the naturalism of female figurines has

reached its acme period in the Late Neolithic. After this

period abstract figurines started to take place. This change

increased even more during the Early Chalcolithic Period.

Yet in the Late Chalcolithic Period figurines gained the

features of an idol. The change was more rapid towards the

end of the Late Chalcolithic and reached its acme period at

Early Bronze Age I. After this phase details of physical and

facial appearance of the figurines were mostly not depicted.

The transition from figurines to idols has taken its final

form especially during the Early Bronze Age I and the same

features were continued until the end of this period. As

parallels to the change in appearance the materials used in

producing female figurines also changed. The terracotta

figurines were replaced by light colored marble idols as

observed from the many examples found especially in

Western Anatolia. This status continued through the entire

Early Bronze Age I.

The discovery of fire was the biggest step forward in

civilization for mankind. After the heating and the

illuminating features of fire were discovered men could

easily invent the devices necessary in daily life. Besides their

heating function the fire lit in the caves and cottages also

enabled cooking thus food became more easily edible and

tasty. The fire also lit the surrounding and protected them

from the attacks of wild animals. At certain time periods

during the day in places where the sun and moonlight is not

sufficient controlled fires were lit and instruments to be used

for such a purpose were produced. In a short while besides

the easy solutions like torches, firelighters etc. less dangerous

and controlled illumination instruments were produced. The

first lamps were created by burning animal fats and

vegetable oils within mollusk shells via a wick. In a short

while they were made of terracotta. Oil lamps were the

earliest illumination gadgets and were left at temples as

votive instruments and they also accompanied the dead in

their graves.

According to the results obtained from the

archaeological studies, the illumination instruments were

used around the Mediterranean basin, in Syria, Palestine,

Cyprus, Greece and Anatolia as early as the 2nd millennium

BC. These were small terracotta bowls which held the oil

and the wick within. During the Hellenistic and Roman

Period serial production of lamps were made possible by

using the potter’s wheel and molding. On these lamps there

were the depictions of historical characters, scenes from

daily life, erotic, mythological, and hunting scenes, and also

animal figures and floral compositions were made all in

relief form. In the Christian belief -whether it be from the

sun, or a candle or a lamp- “flame or light” symbolized

Jesus, who has united with God and the eternity of Eden.

Besides their daily usage especially during the religious

ceremonies held in churches illumination elements were

formed according to a certain pattern bound with the

architecture of the edifice. They were charged by symbolic

meanings. Oil lamps were still in use during the Seljuk

Period and they were often made of terracotta or bronze.

Men have produced weapons for various reasons;

primarily to win the battle against nature, to protect them

from any kind of danger and to protect the land they

owned. Men started to produce simple weapons made of

stone to protect themselves from wild animals, to feed, to

hunt and occasionally to solve the disputes amongst each

other. Usually they chipped off the stones found in nature by

even harder stones or simply used the stone pieces which

could easily be shaped into a weapon. First examples of

weapon technology were the axes and chisels made of stone

and obsidian. Copper was discovered during the

Chalcolithic Period (5800-3400 BC) and through the

alloying of copper and tin bronze was obtained; a metal

widely used during the Bronze Age (3400-1200 BC) where

more effective weapons with sharp edges were procured.

The diversity of weapons in the Bronze Age can easily be

observed in axes with helve holes, flat and eyed, and flat

forms. Daggers, blades, spears, arrowheads and various

sized swords are among the widely used weapon types in

this period.

All weapons were produced by casting in different

techniques. During the Early Bronze Age weapons such as

spearheads, daggers, blades, swords, arrowheads and axes

were cast in sand, clay or stone molds. Daggers, spearheads

and arrowheads must have been roughly formed in sand or

clay molds at first and then they were given their final

shapes through cold or warm forging process.