Becoming Human: Innovations of the first Homo sapiens

While the genetic and fossil evidence suggests that humans became biologically modern some 300 000 years ago, the archaeological evidence suggests that humans were behaviourally modern or cognitively complex around 100 000 years ago. Most of this evidence is from Africa.

Discoveries of pieces of engraved ochre, marine shell beads and engraved ostrich eggshell suggest that symbolic expression and other innovative behaviours associated with modern humans appeared in Africa 100 000 years ago, possibly earlier. 

This engraved piece of ochre (replica pictured here) was found at Blombos Cave, southern Cape, South Africa, in layers dated to 77 000 years old. 
This design was deliberately engraved, and presumably held meaning or symbolism, or perhaps relayed a message.

Ochre-stained perlemoen (abalone) shells were found in 100 000 year old layers at Blombos Cave. Red ochre was ground and mixed in them with seal fat, charcoal and other ingredients. We do not know what the paste was used for - possibly for a body paint, sunscreen or hide tanning.

Stone tool technology gradually became more complex. Good quality raw materials were used and manipulated (by heating), tools were hafted onto handles, and manufacture techniques became more difficult and innovative.

Around 80 000 years ago, fine-grained stone was used to make small (microlithic) crescent-shaped stone tools. One side was purposefully ‘blunted’ (backed) to haft onto an arrow or knife handle. The other side was a very sharp cutting edge. 

These stone tools were then glued onto handles, using resin or plant gum, to make spears or knives. 

The earliest known engraved ostrich eggshell fragments are found at southern African Middle Stone Age sites, dating to between 100 000 and 60 000 years ago.

The ostrich eggshells were used as water flasks. 

The markings are decorative and practical - they helped to identify each flask and to roughen the surface to prevent slipping. 

These replicas, made by Cedric Poggenpoel, are made out of real ostrich eggshell. 

The replicas show how the fragments fitted together and what the complete eggshells would have looked like.

Finding these pieces of the past involves many hours of meticulous digging, brushing and recording. Modern excavation techniques and technological advancements have enabled greater understanding of sites from the microscopic elements and tiny seeds to the accurate dating of material.

Pictured: Sibudu Cave in KwaZulu-Natal

Most known Middle Stone Age sites are in caves and rock shelters, which provided protection from the elements and, with the help of fire, offered protection from predators. 



The shelter environment has helped preserve archaeological remains - including remains of the food that was eaten, the tools that were made and how people lived at a site.

A broad range of food types were exploited by early modern humans - animals and plants. 

Complex hunting equipment and animal bone remains show that people living in the Middle Stone Age were skilled hunters.

Shellfish and marine resources were widely exploited. Unlike hunting dangerous large fauna, shellfish are low risk, high-energy food sources.   

A diverse diet was an important factor in brain development and for their active lifestyle.  

South Africa has some of the earliest evidence of cooked plant foods in the world, dating to 170 000 years ago. 

A range of edible plants were eaten, including fruits, seeds, nuts and rhizomes. 

The earliest plant bedding and mats are found in South Africa, dating to 200 000 years old. Bedding was made from sedges, grasses, rushes and some incorporate anti-insecticidal leaves (such as camphor or quince) which were used to keep insects away.

From 100 000 years ago, bone tools become formalised and diverse, with a range of types of tools found including points, awls, needles and scrapers.  
Some of the bone tools may have been hafted as spears or arrowheads. 


These replicas are made by Justin Bradfield.

While the genetic and fossil evidence suggests that humans became biologically modern some 300 000 years ago, the archaeological evidence suggests that humans were becoming behaviourally modern or cognitively complex around 100 000 years ago.