Objects of War: Currency in a time of Conflict

This exhibition explores the interlocking relationship between money and conflict through the centuries.

Henry VIII groat (1544) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

Financing War

Henry VIII's debasement of gold and silver coins in the 1540s helped to finance war against France. Between 1544 and 1551, on a systematic basis, lower amounts of silver and gold were put into English coins than the public had come to expect.

Examples of 'gun money' (1688/1690) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

In 1688 James II had been forced out of England by William of Orange, and having fled to France was persuaded his best chance of returning to power lay in using southern Ireland as a base. Battles needed to be fought, but gold and silver coins were in short supply in Dublin and the idea was seized upon of producing coins from copper-based alloys. Remarkably their manufacture apparently included use of armaments, such as cannons and guns, as well as all manner of scrap brass and bronze in other forms, which accounts for the term gun money being applied some years later.

WIlliam III half crown (1696) by Norwich MintThe Royal Mint Museum

For William III (1689-1702) the need to initiate a recoinage to restore the value and reputation of England's currency was directly linked to his war against Louis XIV. This coin was minted at the temporary mint in Norwich marked with an N below the King's effigy.

Charles I silver coins (1640) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

Demand for money in times of war

Money can take many forms in the setting of war but regular definitive issues usually bear the greater burden. Starting in the seventeenth century, the English Civil War reveals a marked increase in output. For most of the 1640s output was higher than in the decades immediately preceding and after, with a noticeable spike evident just before the war started. It is thought the prospect of conflict brought about a strong desire to turn silver into coin.

Pontefract siege piece (1648) by UnknownThe Royal Mint Museum

During the English Civil War, currency was also created locally in conditions where groups found themselves cut off from normal sources of supply. Advances in siege warfare during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries made it a more effective tactic and cities with an army camped outside the gates sometimes chose to create their own emergency money, known as siege pieces.

Cartwheel penny (1797) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

During times of conflict, coins which would otherwise be destined for everyday transactions would be re-directed to cover supplies and soldiers' pay, but from time to time special arrangements were made and occasionally it is possible to identify specific coins struck for war.

Carlisle siege piece (1645) by UnknownThe Royal Mint Museum

During the English Civil War, Carlisle became an isolated royalist outpost in the north of England when the city was besieged by a Scots army from October 1644. Every citizen, it is recorded, was ordered to offer up their silver plate to be coined and in May 1645 one and three-shilling pieces were the outcome.

Military guinea (1813) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

With the exception of 1797 and 1798, gold had not been minted in Britain in any substantial amount since the early 1790s but an exception was made towards the end of the Peninsular War (1808-14). The coins, dated 1813, which came to be known as military guineas, were shipped out to Wellington for use in the Peninsula. Only about 360,000 were minted and they were the last guineas to be produced.

Louis d'Or gold coin (1825) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

Paying for campaigns sometimes involved making the money of other states. In 1815 production began at the Mint on Tower Hill of French Louis d'Or twenty franc gold coins. The purpose in mind was to supply British troops in France with coins they could readily spend.

George VI threepence (1937) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

Output of the nickel-brass threepence increased during the Second World War, reaching a peak of £1.2 million in 1942-3. It is thought their popularity was influenced by their shape, the ease of recognising the distinctive twelve sides being especially appreciated during blackouts.

18th century silver coins in circulation (1700/1800) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

Production in a time of conflict

During the eighteenth century Britain found itself drawn into conflict more frequently than had been the case in the previous two centuries. Looking at Britain's currency over the same period reveals a somewhat delinquent monetary policy that generated severe shortages of silver and copper coins.

Charles I triple unite (1642) by Oxford MintThe Royal Mint Museum

In the English Civil War of the 17th century, a similar occurrence took place. After Charles I left London on 10th January 1642, he was denied access to the Mint in the Tower so forces loyal to him established mints in support of his military campaigns against the parliamentarians. Royalist mints were set up in Oxford, Bristol, Truro, Exeter, York and Chester, with the output at Oxford including large and elaborately designed triple unites in gold.

Vigo five guinea reverse (1703) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

The deliberate capture of gold and silver has acted as a supplementary source of metal for coinage, the better documented occasion being the seizure in 1702 of bullion by British forces at Vigo Bay in north west Spain.

Vigo five guinea obverse (1703) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

What was recovered from the Spanish ships was brought back to London and, to draw attention to the successful action, silver and gold coins were produced with the word 'Vigo' placed beneath the bust of Queen Anne.

Smirke building, Royal Mint, Tower Hill (1939/1945) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

An often higher demand for coinage at a time when raw materials were in short supply was a perfect storm of inconvenience for mint authorities during the Second World War. This photograph shows the Mint building at Tower Hill scarred by bomb damage.

Staff at Pinewood Cinema Studios, Iver Heath auxiliary mint (1941) by Iver Heath Auxiliary mintThe Royal Mint Museum

During the Second World War there was a fear that the Royal Mint could be put out of action as a result of enemy bombing. Some equipment was therefore moved from London to establish an auxiliary mint in an old scenery store at Pinewood Studios at Iver Heath in Buckinghamshire.

Irish halfpenny (1928) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

The new Mint began operations in June 1941 and, being equipped with furnaces, rolling mills, blanking presses and eight Heaton presses, it was entirely self-sufficient. In addition to lower denomination base metal British coins, the temporary facility maintained the international profile of the Mint's commitments by producing coins for Ireland, Iraq and Peru.

Newark siege piece (1645) by UnknownThe Royal Mint Museum

Personalising money

Finding uses for money completely divorced from its function as currency has a rich and varied tradition. The siege pieces of the English Civil War were usually sophisticated enough to be denominated, but pierced examples survive suggesting they were worn as royalist badges in support of Charles I or his exiled son the future Charles II.

Engraved silver coin (1914/1918) by Unknown British soldierThe Royal Mint Museum

There are many examples of coins playing an emotional as opposed to an economic role in the setting of war, which is encountered during the Great War with soldiers engraving personal messages on coins. Shell cases were a favoured medium but messages were carved into the surface of pennies, and other denominations, frequently to a wife or family member.

Silver engraved coin (1914/1918) by UnknownThe Royal Mint Museum

Their crude appearance is suggestive of the basic tools available but there are instances of some being well thought-through, bearing designs inspired by regimental badges. Here we have a silver coin skilfully engraved with the design of the cap badge of the Royal Artillery and bearing the inscription 'From a friend to a friend'.

Edward III noble (1344) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

Images of war on currency

An armour-clad soldier wielding a sword has been one of the more obvious ways in which to capture the idea of conflict through the medium of currency design. This gold noble of Edward III shows the figure of the king conspicuously carrying a large sword and shield.

George noble (1526) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

England's patron saint first arrived on the English coinage in 1526 under Henry VIII on the short-lived George noble. It was a splendid creation, a charging heavily armoured knight, the plain cross of St George emblazoned on his chest, thrusting a lance into the open mouth of a dragon.

Charles I 20-shilling (1642) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

The portraits by Thomas Rawlins of Charles I shown mounted are amongst the most memorable of English coinage designs. Perhaps the most dramatic is the silver twenty shillings of 1642 on which the king, somewhat formal in posture, is shown trampling over a collection of arms and armour.

Maltreated coins (1970/2000) by UnknownThe Royal Mint Museum

Countermarking has in many instances been intended as an endorsement, but the motivation behind certain marks cannot be seen as anything other than provocative. During the troubles in Northern Ireland both sides took to stamping the initials of paramilitary organisation into coins.

D Day 50p artwork (1994) by John MillsThe Royal Mint Museum

War and conflict is still a common feature on commemorative coins today, with recent events such as the fiftieth anniversary of the D-Day landings featuring on a 50p in 1994. Pictured here is the original artwork by John Mills.

Soviet Union half-rouble (1924) by Royal MintThe Royal Mint Museum

After the guns have fallen silent returning soldiers need to be re-employed, control over inflation often has to be re-established and the reputation of a currency sometimes rebuilt. In the first two decades of the twentieth century dramatic changes of regimes and the beginnings of empires came thick and fast. This silver half-rouble of 1924 was one of the first coins issued by the Soviet Union.

Credits: Story

For further reading on currency in a time of conflict a Royal Mint Museum publicaation 'Objects of War'is available from our website. http://www.royalmintmuseum.org.uk/about-us/research-and-publications/index.html

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The story featured may in some cases have been created by an independent third party and may not always represent the views of the institutions (listed below) who have supplied the content.
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