Masters of the Sea, Lords of the World
The quest for world power and domination through science and cartography.
By Naval Museum
Museo Naval de Madrid
Navigation and Map-Making
Navigation has been hugely important in the history of civilization. It has led to social and cultural interactions all over the world, and a command of navigation was essential for the expansion of overseas territories.
Felipe Bauzá's drawing instruments (XVIII century) by Baradelle L’ainéOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
The search for new routes required the development of new scientific and technological methods that would improve navigation and provide a better understanding of the seas.
One of the main fields of study was cartography: the science of analyzing the measurements of the Earth's regions and transferring them into a small-scale graphic format. Spain made a considerable contribution to our knowledge of the Earth's geography through its nautical cartography.
Portolan chart of the Mediterranean Sea (1563) by Mateo PrunesOriginal Source: Museo Naval, Madrid.
Early Cartography
In the Middle Ages, the cartographic tools used were called "portulan" or "portolan" charts, whose origins lie in the "peripli" (voyages) of classical antiquity. They were considered to be encyclopedias of the world and depicted geographical, political, social, cultural, and religious features. Cities such as Majorca, Genoa, and Venice played a key role in the development of these documents.
This Portolan Chart by Mateo Prunes is an example produced in Majorca.It depicts nearby enclaves and refers to the New World to the west with some Atlantic vessels.
Following the medieval tradition, Prunes depicts the most important cities with turreted buildings surrounded by walls: an idealized way of showing the increasing importance of these cities in Europe.
The River Nile was of great importance in nautical cartography. It is depicted prominently by Prunes, running right to the edge of the map.
Beside it is the Red Sea, depicted with a white band marking the passage of the people of Israel through its waters in search of the Promised Land.
Catalan Atlas (1375) by Abraham CresquesOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
This is an exact copy of the Nautical Atlas or Catalan Atlas attributed to Abraham Cresques, the original of which is currently in the National Library of France in Paris.
Both Asia and the Japanese islands are accurately depicted thanks to information gathered as a result of Marco Polo's voyages, and the commercial routes that were established with these regions.
The work is full of topographical and anecdotal references to the known world, as can be seen in the Tuareg tents of North Africa and depictions of rulers.
Universal Chart by Juan VespuccioOriginal Source: Hispanic Society, New York.
Casa de Contratación (House of Commerce)
The arrival of Christopher Columbus in America in 1492 changed people's understanding of the limits of the known world. As a consequence, in 1503, the Catholic Monarchs founded the "Casa de Contratación" (House of Commerce) in Seville. It oversaw matters relating to the New World, from the construction of navigational instruments to the production of maps. These tasks were overseen by the Chief of Navigation, Amerigo Vespucci, and later (from 1512) by his nephew Giovanni Vespucci.
In this Universal Map (an exact copy of the original that is currently kept at the Hispanic Society of New York), Giovanni Vespucci depicts the Spanish discovery of the Strait of Magellan in 1520 and Tenochtitlán (now the site of Mexico City) a year later.
Universal Chart (1866) by Diego RiberoOriginal Source: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana (Vatican City)
The Casa de Contratación laid down the rules for producing the Universal Map or "Padrón Real," meaning Royal Standard (later known as the General Standard). This was a unique, official, and secret Spanish master template and only a small number of people were permitted to make a limited number of copies in order to produce maps and nautical charts.
It was a basic map that was continuously updated with newly "discovered" lands, allowing those in power to study their size and location.
This is an exact copy of the Universal Map (the original of which is kept in the Vatican Library) produced by the Portuguese Royal Cosmographer Diego Ribero , whose duty it was to update the Padrón Real.
As a result of new geographical discoveries made by Pizarro, the depiction of the North American coast is completely accurate, and the coasts of Colombia and Peru are also shown in South America.
Technological Advances
The development of scientific knowledge and advances in technology allowed cartographers to produce ever more accurate nautical charts, which could be used to assist navigators in ensuring that their voyages were safer and more accurate.
Astronomic Astrolabe (1598) by Michiel CoignetOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
Besides being calculation instruments, astrolabes were used to measure the altitude of the sun and stars, tell time based on the altitude of the sun, and determine the date and time that each season started.
This astrolabe was made by Michiel Coignet, a scholar and scientist who worked for Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabel Clara Eugenia, rulers of the Southern Netherlands.
This is an hourglass: an instrument for measuring time that allowed the distance traveled to be calculated by multiplying speed by time.
The proportional compass (or sector) was an instrument developed during the Renaissance for solving arithmetic and trigonometry problems. It was used in both cartography and navigation.
The model kept at the Naval Museum of Madrid was made by Metz, which was one of the main suppliers of instruments to the Dutch East India Company.
Ruler to trace directions (XVIII century) by AnonymousOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
This is a nautical slide rule: a measuring instrument used to chart the courses taken by ships. It meant that nautical charts could include information on the depth of the sea, danger zones, currents, and tides.
This type of mathematical instrument was mainly used to solve navigational problems involving plane and spherical triangles.
It was named after the English mathematician and astronomer Edmund Gunter, whose book "De Sectore et Radio," published in 1623, set out the methods for solving these problems.
Spanish Sextant (End of XVIII century) by José María BaleatoOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
Sextants were used to measure and construct angles, and to measure angular distances and the altitudes of celestial bodies, to determine the observer's location.
In 1790 the General of the Spanish Armada,José de Mazarredo, devised an improvement to the sextant's telescope mechanism, which was then incorporated into the manufacture of these instruments.
Three-armed compass (XX century) by Heath and Co.Original Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
This type of 3-armed protractor is used to create nautical charts. The user can determine their position on a chart by using the measurement (provided by a graphometer or sextant) of the 2 angles formed by 3 known points on land.
The Geodesic Mission and the Importance of Cartography
In the 18th century, disagreements over the true shape of the Earth prompted the French Academy of Sciences to lead an expedition to determine the answer. It was one of the first modern international scientific expeditions, and Spaniards Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa were among those who took part.
This instrument is used to determine horizontal lines in topography and geodesy, which is the science that studies the shape and size of the Earth, and the positioning of points on its surface.
The Spaniards Jorge Juan and Antonio de Ulloa used it in the Geodesic Mission that took them to the Viceroyalty of Peru.
They also used this azimuthal quadrant: an astronomical instrument used for measuring the altitude of celestial bodies. It was used in navigation to determine latitude and calculate the time.
It was made by the astronomer and manufacturer John Bird, who made large instruments for the observatories in Paris, Greenwich, and Cadiz, and for the Radcliffe Observatory in Oxford.
Pattern nº3 of the Metric System (XIX century) by Esteban LenoirOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
It was during this expedition that the foundations were laid for the establishment of the metric system. Later, in 1791, the Academy of Sciences in Paris set up a commission to determine the measurement system, which included Gabriel Ciscar y Ciscar and Agustín de Pedrayes.
This steel bar shows the exact length of a meter and was brought to Spain by Ciscar following the meetings in Paris.
Important Cartographers
Cosme Damián Churruca y Elorza was a Spanish scientist and naval officer who played a fundamental part in the development of Spanish cartography. He took part in several expeditions and charted various regions. On one such expedition, he explored the Strait of Magellan, where he undertook a reconnaissance of the Strait towards the Pacific and discovered an alternative route. He also took part in the South American Geographical Expedition, which informed the development of the North American Maritime Atlas.
Marine Chronometer (1788) by John ArnoldOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
This marine chronometer is a precision timepiece used to determine a ship's geographical longitude by comparing the time on the chronometer with local time.
It was used by Churruca on his reconnaissance expedition to the Strait of Magellan.
Vicente Tofiño de San Miguel (1732-1795) (1853) by AnonymousOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
Vicente Tofiño de San Miguel was a Spanish naval officer and cosmographer. As well as working as a teacher and as the Director of the Academy of Midshipmen, he was an important cartographer.
Atlas Marítimo de España (1789) by Vicente Tofiño de San MiguelOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid. Biblioteca
Tofiño and his colleagues produced the Maritime Atlas of Spain.
This publication was commissioned by King Charles III of Spain to rectify the problem of a lack of reliable charts of the Spanish coastline. This led to the creation of a "hydrographic map" similar to that already created in France.
The map contained the demarcations of all Spanish ports and coastlines, using internationally recognized modern methods.
Juan Gutiérrez de la Concha (1760-1810) (XIX century) by AnonymousOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
Juan Antonio Gutiérrez de la Concha y Mazón was a Spanish naval and army officer who took part in the Malaspina Expedition. The expedition proposed the need to create hydrographic maps of the American and Philippine coastlines, just as Vicente Tofiño had done in Spain.
He was given the task of creating a map of the San Jorge Gulf in Patagonia, Argentina.
Chart of Juan de la Cosa (1500) by Juan de la CosaOriginal Source: Museo Naval Madrid.
An interest in learning about the world led countries to develop disciplines and instruments that they could use to improve their knowledge. Advances in cartography coincided with a thirst for scientific knowledge, and Spain became a key location for its development.
Organized By
Museo Naval de Madrid (Naval Museum of Madrid)
Sponsors
BBVA
Fundación Museo Naval
Curator
José María Moreno Martín
Online Adaptation
The Naval Museum's Communications Department
Xián Rodríguez, Alicia Suárez
Based on the exhibition "Masters of the Sea, Lords of the World: The History of Spanish Nautical Cartography" at the Naval Museum of Madrid.
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