Sanitation Workers: The Backbone of Indian Sanitation Systems

The study of diseases in Colonial India found an association between ineffective sanitation and the spread of infectious diseases like typhoid, jaundice, among others. For decades now, effective sanitation has been at the forefront of government policies and priorities. 

Since the 18th century, administrators have proposed drainage systems and construction of public latrines to avoid the public's exposure to human waste. However, manual handling of human faeces by workers called scavengers, was central to sanitation systems.

During colonial rule, the imperial British government sought to employ the traditional cased based manual scavengers as municipal cleaners to avoid causing ripples within the Indian community and the caste mindset. The additional advantage was saving on paying formal wages.

Historically, the communities employed as manual scavengers belong to the lowest of low castes, class, and form the most vulnerable sections of Indian society. The stigma of defecation and waste, caused by notions of purity and pollution deprive them of agency.  

The caste system is based on an authoritative religious book on Hindu law, the Manusmriti, circa 100 CE. The text divided communities into four main castes. Innumerable caste sections emerged over centuries based on occupation and bloodlines with a distinct hierarchy.

As India struggled for independence, M.K Gandhi attempted to end caste discrimination. However, to avoid infighting, he simultaneously embraced the caste system as 'god-given' duties, and briefly likened manual scavengers to mothers of society, keeping their children clean.

This ambiguity solidified the position of sanitary workers in society, and caste based discrimination remained woven into the new government of independent India. Intermarriage, intermingling or even sharing food vessels and water sources were considered 'polluting' and taboo.

Activists like Dr. B.R Ambedkar emerged as human rights activists for 'Dalits', (meaning 'broken identity'), a term used to refer to lower caste people. Over the following decades, committees would form, protests held, walkouts staged, all to force the government into action.

The practice of 'manual scavenging' involves using bare hands and minimal tools, such as scrapers, to clean and empty toilets and tanks. The faeces is removed and transported using buckets, baskets, and carts. These tasks expose workers to extreme health risks.

Unfortunately, sanitation systems have not reached remote areas of the country, thus forcing a reliance on manual scavengers using their self-made tools,  makeshift protective garb for poor wages. Leftover food and old cloth have been used as common forms of payment.

Occupations may no longer be rigidly assigned on caste lines, yet members of the lowest sections have been consistently forced into various unsanitary and demeaning work. Due to the disorganised nature and stigma of the work, regulation and development has been difficult.

The Hindi term Safai Karamchari’ means cleaning staff, but is used to respectfully refer to manual scavengers. The practice has been denounced and banned by successive laws, with attempts to introduce sanitation technology, yet it continues to exist and endanger lives.

Sanitation workers bridge the gap between sanitary requirements and the existing sanitation infrastructure. They include all those involved with sanitation work, cleaning, maintaining, operating or simply being the sanitation system for many communities in India.

As a labour-driven field, the majority of workers belong to the unorganised sector. While most organised workers are gainfully employed and unionised, contract and informal workers are poorly paid, often at the mercy of their employers and subject to exploitation.

Women reportedly comprise over 95% of all manual scavengers in India, receiving the least wage and the most abuse. Though most sanitation workers experience physical and verbal abuse, and discrimination, women suffer two-fold, unable to escape their family obligations.

Since the 1960s, studies have revealed the underlying health crisis. Workers suffer from toxic exposure, recurring infections, malnutrition and physical disorders due to intense manual labour. Workers cleaning septic tanks and manholes suffer fatal asphyxiation at alarming rates.

Public pressure moved the Indian government to initiate many schemes to benefit lower caste communities, from installing watchdog agencies to campaigning for the liberation of manual scavengers. However, these efforts were underfunded, poorly enforced and largely inaccessible.

In 1993, the Indian judiciary passed an act to abolish manual scavenging by outlawing the use of dry latrines. It was accompanied with installations of corporations such as the National Safai Karamchari Financial & Development Corporation to see to the details of the primary act.

However, due to a reported lack of funds and authority, and prejudice within the corporation, the prohibition was unsuccessful. Meanwhile, water scarcity and lack of other sanitary systems meant that dry latrines continue to be used instead of pour-flush latrines in the country.

Non-profit groups have tried to redress issues using grassroot movements and socio-legal advocacy. In 2002, under the Jan Sahas NGO coalition, the Rashtriya Garima Abhiyan campaigned to educate and support manual scavengers, resulted in the reskilling of almost 15,000 women.

Similarly, the Safai Karamchari Andolan, a group established by activist and community member, Bezwada Wilson, ran campaigns to support manual scavengers. They petitioned the courts to register all scavengers nationwide and initiate more effective legislation.

Consequently, the Prohibition of Employment of Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act was passed in 2013. It specifically outlawed employment of sanitation workers, but not the workers themselves. PEMSR detailed rehabilitation programmes and sanitation infrastructure. 

Experts have observed a slow decline in manual scavenging practices and deaths. Yet, with investment in sanitation and advocacy efforts, these communities still have a long road ahead to financial stability, social equity and work of their choosing.

Moderator: By chance, if your child asks to join your work, what would you say?
Workers: We would say no. They should study and live happily. We didn't get an education, we sweep and clean waste, but we want our children to study well, get a job they like and live better lives.