Western Zhou Beast Face Pattern Yan by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
The use of fire quickened the steps of mankind into civilization. Cooking with it marked a crucial milestone in human evolution and the advent of mankind’s culinary culture.
Ancient civilizations devised a range of utensils and tableware to enhance the efficiency of food preparation, presentation, and dining. These not only witnessed the genesis and evolution of Chinese culinary traditions but also encapsulated the very heart of Chinese civilization. Embark with us on a captivating voyage through history and geography, and be awestruck by the remarkable innovations in utensils and tableware from ancient China.
He Zun Bottle by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Three distinct categories of utensils and tableware emerged in ancient times: tableware, cooking utensils, and drinkware. Tableware included spoons, knives, forks, chopsticks, bowls, and plates. Cooking utensils included pots, pans, and stoves. Drinkware included jugs, cups, and tea sets.
The advent of tableware
China boasts a rich culinary heritage characterized by the utilization of diverse dining implements. Spoons appeared around 8,000 years ago, knives and forks around 7,000 years ago, and chopsticks around 3,000 years ago. Remarkably, spoons, knives, and forks were utilized as the primary utensils for thousands of years before the widespread adoption of chopsticks.
Western Zhou Curved Copper Dagger by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Archaeological excavations have uncovered many spoons made from bone at ancient sites dating back to the Stone Age, about 8,000 years ago. In addition, the oldest knife and fork were discovered at a Hemudu site in Zhejiang, which were made from animal bone about 7,000 years ago.
Archaeologists discovered a set of bone forks at a Qijia cultural site in Wuwei, Gansu Province. The bone forks, which were made approximately 4,000 years ago, have three prongs, similar to modern dining forks. These forks were discovered alongside bone knives and spoons, implying that they constituted a complete set of eating utensils.
Western Zhou Curved Copper Dagger by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Before the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), people used spoons to scoop up food like meat and rice. These early spoons bore a striking resemblance to the spoons in contemporary use. In the Western Zhou dynasty (1046–771 BCE), spoons had a sharp edge and a pointed tip for cutting and spearing food.
Chopsticks2 by SHAANXI TOURISM CUISINE PROFESSIONAL COLLEGEWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Chopsticks entered the scene relatively late in China’s historical timeline. According to Records of the Grand Historian and Han Feizi, King Zhou of Shang (1075–1046 BCE) used ivory chopsticks. Archaeologists also found six bronze chopsticks in Yinxu (Ruins of Yin), Henan, which date back to the Shang dynasty. This evidence supports the fact that Chinese people started using chopsticks more than 3,000 years ago.
Chopsticks3 by SHAANXI TOURISM CUISINE PROFESSIONAL COLLEGEWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Archaeologists have discovered a definitive decline of knives and forks used starting from the Han dynasty, suggesting that chopsticks surpassed knives and forks as the preferred dining utensils in China. Chopsticks is a reflection of the philosophy and art intrinsic to Chinese culture. Numerous experts dedicate their studies to these utensils, recognizing them as potent symbols illustrating the distinctions between Eastern and Western culinary traditions and cultures.
The transition from pottery to porcelain: a leap forward for Chinese tableware
For a long time in ancient China, pottery remained the predominant material for making objects for everyday use. For example, cauldrons, the earliest pots in China, were made out of pottery and heated by pottery stoves.
Song Dynasty Blue Glaze Carved Flower Holding Pot by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
The end of the Eastern Han dynasty (184–220 AD) marked an improvement in porcelain production technology and thus completed the transition from pottery to porcelain. Following over three centuries of ongoing development, porcelain surpassed metalware and lacquerware in numerous applications, solidifying its role as an indispensable household item and an artistic furnishing.
The ceramic tableware from each era serves as a mirror, reflecting the unique characteristics and aesthetic inclinations of its time.
Tang Dynasty Tricolor Plate by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
The Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) marked a period of great prosperity, coinciding with rapid advancements in low-temperature porcelain-making technology. This era saw the rise of low-temperature glazed pottery in a diverse array of colors, including yellow, green, white, brown, blue, and black. Among these, yellow, green, and white held particular prominence, leading to the moniker Tang three-color glazed pottery. Porcelain makers even catered their crafts to foreign markets.
White Xing ware and Ding ware emerged during the Sui and Tang dynasties (587–901 AD), and became a popular tableware choice. The advent of white porcelain in China represented a pivotal milestone in the evolution of porcelain, laying the material and technical foundations for the subsequent creation of colorful porcelain.
White glazed holding pot by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
The Song dynasty (960–1279 AD) witnessed the peak of porcelain-making, with techniques and porcelain culture reaching unprecedented heights. The porcelain of this period was distinguished by its simplicity, freedom, openness, and boldness.
The Yuan dynasty (1271–1368 AD) marked a significant breakthrough in porcelain production. The techniques for creating blue and white porcelain and underglaze red porcelain emerged, ushering in a new era of vibrant and colorful porcelain. Yuan porcelain gained widespread popularity and found its way into West Asia and East Asia, playing a pivotal role in enhancing the development of the porcelain industry and the cultural exchange between China and other countries.
Yuan Dynasty White Glazed Black Flower High Foot Cup by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
During this period, the firing technology of Longquan ware and Jingdezhen ware in southern China experienced remarkable developments. Jingdezhen in particular emerged as a pivotal hub for porcelain design and production in China, and gained a prestigious global reputation that endures to this day.
Ming Dynasty "Great Ming Hongzhi Year System" Doucai Pan by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Porcelain in the early Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD) was known to be vibrant and colorful, capturing the blue and white style of the Yuan dynasty. In the middle of the Ming period, under the reign of Emperor Chenghua (1465–1487 AD), the addition of other colors, such as red, green, yellow, and purple, accompanied the blue and white base, creating the famous Chenghua doucai (contrasting colors) porcelain.
Qing Dynasty Bronze Body with Cover Enamel Color Warm Plate by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
The Qing dynasty (1636–1912 AD) marked a pinnacle of innovation and excellence in porcelain production. During this era, the techniques passed down from previous dynasties were not only preserved but also refined, giving rise to novel products like famille rose porcelain. The porcelain of this period represented another new peak in Chinese ceramic art.
From the Bronze Age to the Iron Age: a new stage for the development of metal tableware
The transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age (about 4,000 years ago) saw significant improvement in the quality of ancient China’s tableware. Bronze tableware held several advantages over stone and clay alternatives. It has better thermal conductivity for cooking food and enhanced ductility for making artistic craftsmanship easier.
These characteristics make bronzeware more suitable for diverse cooking methods, and the abundant artistic attributes rendered it highly valuable for imperial ceremonies. In this era, boiling, steaming, and roasting were the main methods of cooking food.
He Zun Bottle by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Ding cauldrons is one of the most important varieties of ancient Chinese bronze ware, used for cooking and serving meat. Among its counterparts, it was recognized by later generations as a carrier of profound symbolism, representing the highest authority. This revered vessel played a crucial role in various rituals and sacrificial ceremonies, making it the quintessential emblem of state and power.
The Chinese still hold ding in high esteem nowadays. As a result, its name has taken on additional connotations like prominence, nobility, and grandeur.
Western Zhou Copper Dou by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
In ancient China, people used dou to hold sauces and pickles. This practice enhanced the flavor and texture of boiled meat, which was a common dish in the Western Zhou dynasty (1046–771 BCE). Before eating, individuals would cut the meat and dip it in the sauce that was served in a dou. The Han dynasty’s Book of Rites mentions that “the Son of Heaven is entitled to use twenty-six dou”.
In this era, dou vessels were indicative of social status; possessing more dou indicated greater access to a variety of flavors. It was common to use dou vessels in pairs, further emphasizing their significance.
Qin Fugui Copper Wine Cup of the Shang Dynasty by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Jue were vessels for drinking alcoholic beverages in the Shang and Zhou dynasties. The vessel is also thought to have been used for rituals and ceremonies. In later generations, its significance came to symbolize the concept of nobility.
Stir-fry by World Federation Of Chinese Catering IndustryWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
During the Warring States period (475–221 BCE), China entered the Iron Age. It marked increased sophistication of iron cookware, beginning to resemble modern iron pans with thin walls and shallow bottoms. In the Northern Song dynasty (1049–1053 AD), China had produced over 30,000 tons of iron annually, making iron cookware more accessible. The Song dynasty was characterized by the significant development of unique Chinese cooking techniques, such as stir-frying.
Spring and Autumn Mixed Gold and Silver Pot by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Aside from ceramics and metals, the world of tableware was enriched by a variety of other materials such as lacquered wood or bamboo, gold, silver, jade, and glass. These diverse materials contributed to both the functionality and aesthetic appeal of tableware. The craftsmanship of these materials also reflects the differing aesthetic pursuits throughout the ages.
Painted pottery, porcelain, bronzeware, lacquerware, goldware, silverware, and glassware are different expressions of the beauty of tableware. The unique character and style they bring enhance the enjoyment of food. The perfect combination of delicious food and beautiful utensils is the ultimate goal of culinary culture.
Cloisonne oven by Baoji Bronze MuseumWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Tableware has evolved over several thousand years, gradually becoming more refined and sophisticated in its materials, combinations, and functionality. Utensils, color, aroma, taste, shape, and temperature are the six elements that make up traditional Chinese culinary culture. Each of these components enhances and complements each other.
Exquisite tableware by World Federation of Chinese Cuisine IndustryWorld Federation of Chinese Catering Industry
Certain tableware items have borne witness to the ever-evolving tapestry of Chinese food culture, transcending their utilitarian roles to attain status as cherished cultural relics and exquisite artworks. Some of these remarkable pieces have journeyed across the globe along the Silk Road or through ocean trade, facilitating the exchange of global culinary culture.
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