The Viking Mars Mission

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This document is the original Viking Mars Missions' Lander and System Integration proposal by Martin Marietta to NASA Langley’s Viking Project Office in 1969.

This proposal was a response to the NASA Langley Request for Proposals for the mission, and was based on numerous years of study by Martin Marietta staff beginning in the early 1960s when the company was based in Baltimore, Maryland.

The Team that constructed the proposal were individuals hand selected for the Viking Project, many of whom were moved by Martin Marietta to Littleton, Colorado, specifically for the mission.

Also competing for the Viking Project elements, were numerous other contractors and NASA Centers including JPL, GE, Boeing, TRW, and many others. After all proposals were in, the Viking Project Office Team reviewed them for numerous criteria, and Martin Marietta was selected for the Lander Design, Test, and Build, as well as procurement of the science instruments and the overall integration of spacecraft systems.

In addition, Martin Marietta separately won the contract for the Launch system, which was a Titan III-E with Centaur upper stage.

The expertise of the Martin Marietta staff was deep and broad, and resulted in additional assignments throughout the project phases including Mission Flight Team and Mission Operations. Martin Marietta also designed, developed and managed a Science Instrument on the Lander, the X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (XRFS) instrument.

This Proposal includes details of the primary elements for the mission as they were originally proposed, as well as processes and touch points between vendors and NASA and the organizational and decision making processes.

The Proposal was part of the bidding process to win the contract for these elements. As such, it is different than the final "As Built" document which we will also include in the exhibit.

This document contains the primary elements for each functional system as well as the integration and testing processes and is an excellent example of how much work went into the research for the mission prior to even winning the contract.

Substantial early investment was made by Martin Marietta through company investment NASA-sponsored Internal Research and Development Program (IRAD) funding.

Today individuals have roles at contracting and space agencies that dictate who will lead various efforts. There is a lot of negotiation to win the contracts, but those that execute and implement, frequently have their roles pre-existing and they move from mission to mission, with the exception of the Mission Principal Investigators and Science Team Leaders that may have contributed to the Primary Mission Design.

This was not so with Viking. For the Viking mission, many members were hand picked to work on the mission from each institute and center.

Viking got its start before the Project Office was assigned, with a small group of individuals and an earlier ambitious Mars mission called Voyager. The Voyager mission was planning to launch two orbiters and two landers on each of two Saturn V launch vehicles. Voyager was not ultimately funded but the group remained focused on Mars as the most interesting and viable option for Planetary exploration which led to the second proposal which ultimately became Viking.

The mission question "Why Mars" was addressed by scientists and leaders from all over, that later contributed to and led Viking teams: Dr. Gerald Soffen, Dr. Richard S. Young, Dr. Tobias Owen, Dr. Harold P. Klein, Dr. Seymour L. Hess, Dr. Hugh F. Kieffer, Dr. Crofton B. Farmer, Dr. Thomas A. Mutch, Dr. Richard W. Shorthill, Dr. Robert B. Hargraves, Dr. Don L. Anderson, Dr. Priestly Toulmin III, Dr. Klaus Biemann, Dr. Michael B. McElroy and many others contributed to the dialogue that would shape the Viking mission objectives. These and other contributing Team members were led by Jim Martin, Israel Tabak, Dr. Soffen, R.S. Young, A. Thomas Young, and Conway Snyder, the team that participated the successful Lunar Orbiter missions, and originated the first Mars Voyager mission.

These individuals paved the way to Mars.

Martin Marietta won the Primary Contractor role for the Viking Mission, and had the unique perspective and opportunity to lead development of systems from the Titan III-E launch vehicle, to the Mars Lander, as well as playing the critical systems integration management.

Martin Marietta's commitment to the Viking mission began long before the Project Office was formed in 1969, as they worked closely with NASA in early Research projects for systems from entry and descent, to computing and sequencing design and science software and interface development and testing.

In addition, Martin Marietta developed a laboratory and moved individuals from Baltimore to Littleton Colorado, all in preparation for the Viking mission.

Many of these individuals had worked on the the Martin Company proposal for the LEM for the Apollo mission.

Viking was successful because of individuals from around the globe. This was most prominent due to the tracking stations in Madrid, Spain and Canberra, Australia that equally supported the mission along with the US based Goldstone Station in California.

The very leadership of the DSN tracking system during Viking, Douglas Mudgway, hailed from New Zealand, though he found his home in California, at Jet Propulsion Laboratory, managing the DSN Stations all over the world. Mr. Mudgway was the Manager for all the earth bound tracking station facilities during the "Viking era" which he refers to in his book "Uplink Downlink" as 1974-1978. He continued after Viking to lead in this role through missions until his retirement in 1991.

Others ran the Stations locally, at Honeysuckle and Tidbinbilla tracking stations in Australia, such as Tom Reid, Director of Tidbinbilla, Milton Turner, who handled public affairs queries for Tidbinbilla, Hamish Lindsay, John Saxon, and support roles such as Barbara Stratford, Secretary to the Director of Tidbinbilla.

In Spain, at the Madrid Deep Station Communications Complex, the same roles existed filled by capable individuals including Carlos Gonzalez, OPS Supervisor working on the OPS consoles communicating with JPL during maneuvers.

All these men and women served as part of the communications "lifeline" to the craft, as commands were sent and data returned through the DSN (Deep Space Network) making every aspect of the mission possible, and living every key moment from launch in 1975 to the end of the extended mission in 1982.

These are just a few individuals we have been in contact with who worked on this element. If you know of others, please have them contact the project at info@thevikingpreservationproject.org

The Viking mission was driven by the Science objectives. These were set before the Project Office was formed based on years of inquiry and research by communities of scientists worldwide that resulted in a 1965 report by the Space Sciences Board of the National Academy of Sciences. They recommended 3 goals: The understand: The origin and evolution of the solar system, the origin and evolution of life, and the dynamic processes that shape man's terrestrial environment.

In addition, both the Viking Orbiters and the Landers had their own mission and science objectives.

The Orbiters were to:
- Guide the spacecraft to Mars orbit
- Survey landing sites
- Support the Landers with power, ground generated commands, and downlink data during flight
- Carry out scientific studies of Mars from orbit
- Act as communications relay station for the Landers

This series of posters was created to accompany the 1977 COSPAR conference in Tel Aviv. They were created by the same individuals that developed the later period Viking Bulletins.

The Science Platform for the Orbiters were mounted on what was referred to as the "scan platform" on the orbiter body, facing the Mars surface. The instruments on the platform were called the "Science Platform".

These included: a pair of high resolution, slow scan TV cameras with filters controlled by ground command; and infared atmospheric water detector (MAWD); and a high resolution infrared thermal mapper. Additionally, Radio Science was conducted which was based on data from both the Orbiters and Landers.

As the orbiters move around the planet surface, the instruments scanned the surface and create 'maps' of information for later study of the geologic features of the planet. These maps were visual image maps of the surface used to characterize the surface and to assist in choosing sites for the Landers, as well as data from the surface which would be correlated to the locations to create maps with iconic or color representation of temperature variations on the surface and moisture in the atmosphere.

In addition to Site Selection (choosing landing sites) and image mapping the surface, the results of these investigations were used to map large scale features of the landing sites for correlation with the lander data, and to investigate the atmosphere of Mars.

Using the radio signals and tracking measurements, scientists were able to study Mars and aspects of the inner solar system.

As the orbiters fly through space, the signals are affected by objects around them providing clues to scientists.

Data helped to measure surface reflectivity, redefine the orbit and mass of Mars which were based on earlier incomplete and rudimentary data sets, estimate the density of Martian ionosphere, measure atmospheric turbulence, effects of atmospheric drag, and the delay time caused by the sun during superior conjunction (when Mars passes behind the sun).

The Principal Investigator for Radio Science was William H. Michael of Langley Research Center.

The Radio Science investigation included data from both the Orbiters and Landers.

The Viking Landers had two primary objectives:

1) Land safely
2) Perform the science investigations

These investigations included instruments to further understand the physical, meteorological, seismological, chemical, geological, biological, and magnetic properties of Mars.

Scientists that led these investigations came from academic and commercial organizations and governmental organizations such as US Geologic Survey and NASA Centers around the country.

Investigators represented Academic Institutes including Brown University, CalTech, Florida State University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Minnesota, Princeton University, University of Texas, University of Utah, and more.

The Soil Chemistry Investigations consisted of three focus areas, intended to characterize the soil on the Mars surface.

The Molecular (Organic) Investigation, used a Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer developed under the direction of Dr. Klaus Biemann at MIT. This instrument focused on chemical analysis and differed from the Biology experiments in a variety of ways but fundamentally was focused on determining if the right constituents were present for past of future life forms as we know them, to exist.

In contrast, the Biology experiments were focused identifying extent "life forms" or positive indicators of biological processes.

The Biology Investigation itself had three experiments, each using a different methodology to determine whether life forms might be present. These included the pyrolytic release, the labeled release, and the gas exchange. The Lead Investigator for the Biology Team was Harold P. Klein using instruments developed by other individuals including Dr. Gil Levin, who developed the Labelled Release experiment referred to as "Gulliver" before it was integrated into the Viking mission.

The "Mineralology" or geochemistry investigation used the X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometer to analyze the chemical elements in the Martian soil. This Investigation was led by Dr. Priestley Toulmin III and Dr. Ben Clark based on an instrument developed and submitted to the project by Dr. Ben Clark.

Viking was the first Mars surface mission, focused on determining the possibility of past or present life on the planet.

The question, "Are we alone?" has been presented in literature and art for centuries, in cultures around the world. But Viking made this question a topic of conversation in homes and institutes around the world real, with biological and chemical data and images for the first time.

With the mission objective communicated by the Press to identify "life", public expectations were immediately set, and what began as a scientific investigation, quickly became in the press and public, a success or failure scenario, with the public in addition to scientists acting as judge.

Regardless which side Vikings agree with, it was a surprise to many interviewed, that 40 years later additional follow-on missions did not get occur. The big question that comes up in interviews with Viking team members is, why was another mission with additional instruments to detect life, not sent immediately following Viking? For those Viking that continued to work with Mars missions, it was immediately clear that the cost of sterilization was prohibitive. Following Viking, there were also fundamental shifts that changed the direction from in situ testing to sample return missions. Research was done and proposals submitted for follow on missions, but they were discarded or not funded largely due to costs.

Most important, is the incredible body of science the diverse investigations did create, and vast image library provided by Viking, that has become a resource for all subsequent missions.

Viking was unquestionably an enormous success, not solely for the new information on the characteristics of the surface and soil, but the atmospheric, and physical properties and deep body of knowledge provided.

Because these experiments were conducted in the 1970s with limited hardware capabilities, even the theoretical pursuit of findings was ambitious. Results produced in a lab on Earth were significantly more difficult to determine on Mars. Nonetheless, the instruments performed exceptionally based on their limitations, and not too surprisingly, the results were interpreted differently by various reviewing bodies despite meeting the initial criteria for a 'positive' results determination.
Today, continued studies offer arguments for and against the possibility of positive biologic response from Viking. Efforts continue by Viking Biology Team member Dr. Gil Levin, Dr. Patricia Straat, to reevaluate the findings in an effort to demonstrate the results were positive.

Another challenge was relating science fact in terms that could be comprehended by layman, and the institutes responsible for communicating results were under extreme scrutiny when the results came in. Thus the dialogue about results have not been effectively communicated to the public, and the Viking argument continues to this day... "Did Viking detect Life?"
The results had human and scientific impact, and many were discouraged with the announcements by NASA. However, it was not predicted that it would be 20 years before another mission, Pathfinder, was sent to the surface.

The Biology Team Scientists were Team Leader Dr. Harold P. Klein of NASA Ames Research Center, Dr. Norman Horowitz, Dr. Joshua Lederberg of Stanford University, Dr. Gilbert Levin of Biospherics, Dr. Vance Oyama of NASA Ames Research Center, and Dr. Alexander Rich of MIT.

The X-ray Florescence Spectrometer was used to analyze the chemical elements in the Martian soil.

The Inorganic Chemistry Team included Team Leader Priestly Toulmin III from the USGS, Dr. Benton Clark of Martin Marietta, Dr. Alex K. Baird of Pomona College, Dr. Klaus Keil of the University of New Mexico, and Dr. Harry Rose of the USGS.

Interviews with Dr. Benton Clark have provided substantial additional material and that will be included in later Exhibits focused on the Science of Viking.

The Magnetic Properties Team was led by Dr. Robert Hargraves of Princeton University and USGS.

The instrument development was contracted to Raytheon Inc.

The Meteorology Investigation may not have been the primary focus of the mission, but it ended up providing the most extensive science baseline of any of the instruments, as a result of the extended missions.

After the 90 day Primary Mission, the meteorology instrument, cameras, and orbiters continued to operate, and Viking team members petitioned to continue the mission.

The Meteorology Instrument continued beyond all other instruments until 1982.

During this period the longest baseline of Mars atmospheric data was collected, providing future scientists and engineers to better understand the Mars weather and atmosphere for science and future missions. The extended mission was managed by Viking Team Member James E. Tillman, in coordination with the tracking stations in Goldstone, CA, Madrid, Spain, and Australia's Honeysuckle and Tidbinbilla. The Mission Operations was conducted at JPL.

This was important beyond just understanding the characteristics, but to plan future missions, which would consider temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind direction and wind speed. Measurements were taken from both the meteorology boom and the footpad, to gain an understanding of the differences between surface readings and readings taken from the extended position of the boom.

A deep presentation of this instrument can be found in the Critical Design Review document in the Pre Launch section of the Exhibit. Included are engineering drawings, materials, test plans and other requirements and specifications.

Additional materials will be available that may enable viewers to build their own meteorology instruments, and learn in depth about the Viking instrumentation, design, testing, and results.

Click on the image icons in the lower left of your screen to see the whole series of images taken during pressure testing of the rocket engines.

Note the changes on the pressure gauge in the lower left of the image. Each cone was tested independently and in sequence to ensure the engines would fire as needed for a smooth descent to the Mars surface.

The rocket engines were developed by Rocket Research in Redmond, Washington, and were integrated into the Lander at Martin Marietta in Littleton, Colorado.

When you are done viewing the sequence of images, click the X in the upper right of the image enlarged to return to the main viewing screen.